WAEC SSCE - Government - 2021

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The right to an adequate standard of living is an economic right. It is recognized in international law as a fundamental human right and is included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This right includes the right to food, housing, clothing, medical care, and other basic necessities of life. An adequate standard of living means having access to the resources and services necessary to live a dignified life. It is important for individuals to be able to meet their basic needs, such as having enough food, clean water, and a safe place to live. The right to an adequate standard of living is closely related to other economic, social, and cultural rights, such as the right to work, the right to education, and the right to healthcare. Unlike civil rights, which protect individual liberties and freedoms, economic rights are concerned with ensuring that individuals have access to the resources necessary to live a decent life. The right to an adequate standard of living is a recognition that people should not have to live in poverty or suffer from hunger or disease simply because they lack the means to access basic necessities. Instead, governments have a responsibility to ensure that everyone has access to the resources and services necessary to live a dignified life.

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Delegated legislation can be beneficial to the democratic process in several ways. Firstly, it can help lawmakers become experts in legislation by allowing them to delegate certain aspects of lawmaking to specialists in the relevant fields. This can lead to more informed and well-crafted laws that address complex issues with greater accuracy and efficiency. Secondly, delegated legislation may help to discipline personnel in the civil service by giving them clear guidance on what is expected of them and what their responsibilities are. This can help to ensure that civil servants act in accordance with the law and do not abuse their power or engage in corrupt practices. However, it is important to note that delegated legislation cannot be applied during periods of crises, as it may lead to undemocratic practices and decisions being made in the name of expediency. Finally, delegated legislation permits certain aspects of legislation to be handled by non-technocrats, which can help to broaden participation in the democratic process and ensure that the views of diverse groups are taken into account. This can lead to laws that are more representative and responsive to the needs of society as a whole.

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Undue political interference in the work of electoral management bodies in West Africa has the potential to erode the independence of the institution. Electoral management bodies are independent institutions responsible for overseeing elections in a country. They are tasked with ensuring that elections are conducted in a free, fair, and transparent manner, without any undue influence from political parties or other external actors. However, when there is political interference, the independence of these bodies is compromised, and their ability to perform their duties impartially and effectively is weakened. If electoral management bodies are not independent, they may be subject to pressure and influence from political parties or other powerful actors, leading to biased decisions and unfair practices. This can undermine the credibility of elections and erode public trust in the electoral process. Furthermore, political interference can make it difficult for electoral management bodies to employ qualified returning officers who are capable of carrying out their duties without fear or favor. This can compromise the quality of the electoral process and lead to irregularities and errors in the election results. Ultimately, if there is political interference in the work of electoral management bodies, it can make it challenging for all parties to accept election results. This can lead to disputes, protests, and even violence, which can destabilize the country and undermine democracy. In summary, undue political interference in the work of electoral management bodies in West Africa has the potential to erode the independence of the institution, compromise the quality of the electoral process, and lead to disputes and instability.

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Under the indirect rule system, Chiefs were used to preside over native courts. This means that they were responsible for enforcing the colonial government's laws and regulations among their people. They were expected to carry out unpopular tasks such as imposing taxes, enforcing forced labor, and punishing those who broke the law. The native courts were also responsible for resolving disputes among members of the community. Therefore, chiefs were seen as agents of colonial authority who were responsible for maintaining law and order in their respective communities.

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The advantage of a multi-party system is that it offers the electorate a wide range of choices. This means that citizens have more options when selecting their representatives, and can vote for a party that aligns with their values and beliefs. This increases competition among political parties, leading to greater accountability and responsiveness to the needs and wants of the citizens. Additionally, a multi-party system can also foster collaboration and compromise between parties, leading to more effective governance and better policy outcomes.

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The European imperialist penetration into West Africa was not primarily motivated by compassion. Compassion refers to a feeling of deep sympathy and concern for the sufferings or misfortunes of others. The European imperialists were not driven by a desire to help the people of West Africa, but rather by other considerations such as economic, social, and military factors. The primary motivations for European imperialism in West Africa were to gain control over valuable resources, to spread their culture and influence, and to establish military outposts for the protection of their interests.

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The Commonwealth member states do not derive political instability as a benefit from the association. The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 54 countries, mostly former territories of the British Empire, that work together towards common goals such as democracy, human rights, and economic development. One of the key benefits of the Commonwealth is that member states can share knowledge and resources to tackle challenges like poverty, disease, and environmental degradation. The association also promotes education, sports, and cultural exchange to foster understanding and goodwill among member states. However, political instability is not a benefit of the Commonwealth. In fact, one of the primary aims of the association is to promote stability and good governance in member states. The Commonwealth provides a platform for dialogue and cooperation among member states to resolve conflicts and prevent political crises. It also supports democratic institutions and practices, and encourages member states to uphold human rights and the rule of law.

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A person who is denied the right to vote is described as disenfranchised. This means that they are not allowed to participate in the electoral process, either because they are not eligible to vote or because their right to vote has been taken away from them. Disenfranchisement can happen for various reasons, such as being too young to vote, not being a citizen of the country, or having a criminal record. In some cases, disenfranchisement can also be a result of discrimination or systemic barriers that prevent certain groups of people from exercising their right to vote. Overall, disenfranchisement can be a serious issue as it denies people a basic right of citizenship and can result in unequal representation and decision-making in government.

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During the colonial era, the British government exercised limited jurisdiction over the protectorates in British West Africa. Protectorates were territories that were not fully incorporated into the British Empire but were under the protection of the British government. The colonial government exercised limited jurisdiction over these protectorates, meaning that they had some control over the territory but not full control. The protectorates were usually governed through local rulers or chiefs who were appointed by the British government and were required to follow British laws and policies. In contrast, conquered states were territories that had been completely taken over by the British government, and they had full control over these territories. Mandated territories were territories that were placed under the control of a colonial power by the League of Nations after World War I, while Trust territories were territories that were placed under the control of a colonial power by the United Nations after World War II.

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A constitution that requires an absolute majority of members of parliament to amend is a "rigid constitution." A constitution is a set of fundamental principles and rules that guide how a country is governed. A rigid constitution is one that is difficult to amend or change. In this case, requiring an absolute majority of members of parliament to amend the constitution means that a significant portion of the parliament must agree to the proposed changes, making it harder to change the constitution on a whim. On the other hand, a flexible constitution is one that can be amended more easily, typically by a simple majority or through other procedures. This means that the constitution can be changed more frequently to reflect changing circumstances, but also that it may be subject to more frequent and potentially less considered changes. Therefore, a constitution that requires an absolute majority of members of parliament to amend is rigid because it is intentionally designed to be hard to change.

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The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) deployed a military force known as the ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) to restore peace and security in Liberia and Sierra Leone. ECOMOG was a regional peacekeeping force made up of troops from ECOWAS member countries, and their mission was to help end the civil wars that were devastating these countries. The force was able to disarm various militias and restore order, paving the way for peace talks and the eventual resolution of the conflicts.

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The mass media relies on polls and surveys to gauge public opinion. Polls and surveys are methods of collecting data from a representative sample of people to understand their opinions and attitudes towards a particular issue or topic. The media uses polls and surveys to gather information on public opinion, which helps them to shape their coverage of news and current events. By analyzing the results of polls and surveys, the media can determine which stories are of interest to the public and which issues are most important to them. In contrast, influential citizens, propaganda, interviews, rumors, and gossip are not reliable indicators of public opinion. While influential citizens may have a significant impact on public opinion, their views may not reflect those of the wider population. Similarly, propaganda, interviews, rumors, and gossip can be biased and may not provide an accurate representation of public opinion. Overall, polls and surveys are considered the most reliable way for the mass media to gauge public opinion.

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Citizens' political participation is best practiced under a political party. Political parties are organizations that represent groups of people who share similar political beliefs and goals. They work to influence government policies and decisions by participating in elections, running candidates for office, and advocating for their positions on issues. Political parties provide citizens with a platform to voice their opinions and work together to achieve their goals. By joining a political party, citizens can pool their resources and expertise to have a greater impact on the political process than they would as individuals. Political parties also help citizens to stay informed about political issues and to understand the nuances of policy debates. While other groups such as militant pressure groups, neighborhood vigilante groups, and cooperative societies can also facilitate political participation, they may have a narrower focus or use more confrontational tactics that are not always effective in achieving broader political goals. Political parties, on the other hand, provide citizens with a more structured and effective means of participating in the political process and influencing government policies.

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In an environment of press freedom, the media plays the role of articulating the views of individuals. This means that the media is able to freely report on and share the opinions and perspectives of different people and groups in society. The media acts as a platform for the expression of diverse opinions and ideas, and helps to facilitate public discourse and debate on important issues. This can contribute to a more informed and engaged citizenry, and ultimately lead to more accountable and responsive governance. However, it is important that the media upholds ethical standards and practices responsible journalism in order to maintain credibility and trust with the public.

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The system of government you are describing is called a representative government. In this type of government, people have the power to elect their lawmakers through free and fair elections. These elected representatives are responsible for making laws, policies, and decisions that benefit their constituents, and they are held accountable for their actions and inactions while in office. This means that if lawmakers fail to deliver on their promises or engage in corrupt practices, the people have the power to vote them out of office in the next election. Overall, a representative government ensures that people have a voice in the decisions that affect their lives and that elected officials are held accountable to the people they serve.

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In a heterogeneous political environment where there are diverse views and opinions, proportional representation (PR) is considered the best electoral system. In PR, the number of seats a political party receives is directly proportional to the number of votes they receive. This means that parties with a larger percentage of the vote receive a corresponding larger share of seats in the government. This system allows for a fair representation of all political parties, regardless of their size or geographical location. It also ensures that minority groups have a voice in the government, which can lead to more inclusive policies and greater political stability. Non-transferable votes, preferential ballots, and run-off elections do not provide as fair a representation of diverse views in a heterogeneous political environment. Non-transferable votes, for example, only allow voters to choose one candidate, which can lead to a winner-takes-all situation and leave many voices unheard. Preferential ballots and run-off elections may lead to a situation where the winner is only supported by a narrow majority of voters, which can be problematic in a diverse political environment where many different perspectives need to be represented. Overall, proportional representation is the best electoral system for a heterogeneous political environment as it allows for the fair representation of all political parties and ensures that minority groups have a voice in the government.

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The policy that made the colonized French West African partners with France in her colonial project was the "Assimilation Policy". During the colonial period, France pursued two main policies in its African colonies: the Assimilation Policy and the Association Policy. The Assimilation Policy was implemented in the French West African colonies and aimed at making the colonies an integral part of France. Under this policy, France sought to impose French culture, language, and values on the African population, with the ultimate goal of assimilating them into French society. The policy was intended to create a French-speaking African elite who would act as intermediaries between France and the rest of the population. In contrast, the Association Policy was implemented in the French Equatorial African colonies and aimed to maintain a greater degree of separation between France and its colonies. This policy recognized the African populations' separate cultural identity and provided for more autonomy for the colonies. The Assimilation Policy was implemented in the French West African colonies in 1916 with the introduction of the "Code de l'Indigénat" which established a dual legal system for French and African citizens. The policy was later formalized in 1946 with the "Loi Lamine Guèye", which granted French citizenship to all colonial subjects and allowed them to participate in French political life. This policy created a class of African citizens who were French in every respect except for their skin color. In summary, the Assimilation Policy made the colonized French West African partners with France in her colonial project by attempting to make them a part of French society and culture, ultimately creating a class of African citizens who were French in every respect.

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The role of newspapers did not motivate the formation and growth of political parties in British West African territories. While newspapers were an important tool for spreading information and ideas, they did not directly drive the formation of political parties. Other factors such as external socio-political factors, improvement in communication networks, and membership of legislative councils played a more significant role in motivating the formation and growth of political parties. These factors influenced the political landscape and created a need for organized political groups to represent different interests and ideas.

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The British colonial governor in West Africa had significant authority due to various reasons. Firstly, they had control over the land tenure system, which meant they had the power to determine who owned the land and how it was used. This gave them immense influence over the economic and social structures of the region. Secondly, the governor had the authority to draft laws that would be implemented throughout the colony. This gave them the ability to shape the legal framework of the region and exert control over the people living there. Thirdly, tax collection was another way the colonial governor exercised power. They had the authority to collect taxes from the people, which gave them significant financial leverage over the population. Lastly, the governor had veto power, which meant they could reject any laws or policies proposed by other officials. This gave them the final say in many decisions, further consolidating their authority. Overall, the British colonial governor in West Africa had sweeping powers due to their control over land, drafting of laws, tax collection, and veto power.

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The most important function of government is to ensure the security of its citizens. This includes protecting citizens from physical harm, providing for their basic needs, and promoting stability and order within society. Governments do this through various means, such as maintaining a police force, providing access to healthcare and education, and implementing laws and policies that ensure the well-being of its citizens. Ensuring the security of its citizens is the foundation upon which all other functions of government are built and is essential for the preservation of individual freedoms and the overall success of a society.

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The term for discontinuing a session of a parliament or other legislative assembly without dissolving it is called Prorogation. Prorogation is when the current session of a parliament or legislative assembly is ended, but the assembly is not dissolved and will meet again in the future. It is often used to mark the end of a legislative session and to prepare for the next session. During prorogation, no business can take place in the assembly, but members can still carry out constituency work and the government can continue to function.

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The role of a newspaper in a state is to disseminate information to the public. This means that newspapers serve as a source of news and information on various topics such as politics, economics, sports, entertainment, and current events. The information provided by newspapers helps citizens stay informed about what is happening in their state, and it enables them to make informed decisions about important issues that affect their lives. Newspapers also have the responsibility to report news accurately and impartially, without bias or favoritism. This helps ensure that the public receives fair and balanced coverage of events and issues. While some newspapers may have a particular political perspective, they still have a duty to provide objective reporting and allow for diverse opinions to be expressed in their pages. While some newspapers may have an influence on government appointments or public policy decisions through their reporting and editorial positions, this is not their primary role. Similarly, ensuring fairness in newspaper circulation and fair distribution of relief items are not typically within the purview of a newspaper's responsibilities.

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An undesirable attribute of capitalism is the exploitation of labor. Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals or businesses own and operate the means of production and distribution of goods and services. In this system, the primary goal is to maximize profits, which often leads to companies exploiting their workers to increase productivity and reduce costs. This exploitation can take many forms, such as paying low wages, denying benefits, and violating labor laws. Workers may be forced to work long hours in poor conditions with little job security, which can lead to a cycle of poverty and inequality. This is a significant issue in capitalist societies, where the pursuit of profit often comes at the expense of workers' rights and well-being.

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A civil servant is barred from active politics when employed. This means that a person who works in a government job and is paid by tax dollars is not allowed to participate in political activities. This is done to maintain impartiality and ensure that government officials do not use their positions for political gain. The idea is to keep government neutral and not influenced by political parties or individuals.

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The action programme of a political party intended to be carried out when political power is won is known as a "manifesto". A manifesto is a published declaration of a party's goals and policies, outlining the changes they would like to bring about in society and the programs they intend to implement if elected to power. It is a document that explains to the public what the party stands for and what they hope to achieve. Manifestos are usually released before elections to help voters understand a party's positions and make an informed decision when casting their vote. Once a party comes into power, they are expected to implement the promises outlined in their manifesto.

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The media can best contribute to the democratic process of a country by setting the agenda for good government. This means that they should inform the public about important issues that affect the country, hold those in power accountable for their actions, and provide unbiased reporting on events. By doing so, the media helps citizens make informed decisions when they vote, participate in public debates, and engage in other civic activities. This kind of reporting encourages transparency and accountability, which are essential for a healthy democracy. However, inciting strikes and demonstrations or recounting the achievements of the government in power can be seen as biased and can undermine the media's credibility and impartiality.

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Local government performs a number of functions on behalf of the central government in the form of mobilizing resources for development. This means that the local government is responsible for identifying the needs of the community, such as infrastructure projects or social services, and finding ways to fund and implement them. Local government also works closely with the central government to ensure that these resources are used effectively and in line with national development priorities. This is an important function of local government as it helps to promote sustainable and inclusive development, which is vital for the overall wellbeing of the community. It is important to note that employing police officers, ensuring attendance of religious institutions, and punishing opposition or dissent are not functions of local government on behalf of the central government.

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The West African Youth League (WAYL) was a nationalist movement founded by ITA Wallace-Johnson in 1935. It was a political and social organization that aimed to promote African self-rule and to challenge colonialism in West Africa. ITA Wallace-Johnson, who was a Sierra Leonean politician and trade unionist, was the driving force behind the WAYL. He believed that Africans should be free to govern themselves and that the colonial powers had no right to control their lives and resources. The WAYL became popular among young people in West Africa and helped to inspire other nationalist movements across the region. It played a key role in advocating for independence and in raising awareness about the injustices of colonial rule. While the movement faced opposition from colonial authorities and was eventually banned, its legacy lived on and helped to pave the way for the decolonization of West Africa.

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Taking over power, military governments mainly rule by decrees. This means that they make decisions and laws without going through the usual democratic processes and without the approval of elected representatives. Decrees are orders issued by the military leaders and have the force of law. In a military government, the military leaders have complete control and make decisions for the country, often disregarding the rights and freedoms of citizens.

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Citizenship of a state is not based on the requirement of marriage. Citizenship is the legal status that confers on an individual the rights and privileges of membership in a particular country. The requirements for acquiring citizenship vary from country to country, but some of the most common requirements include birth, naturalization, and education. Birthright citizenship is the most straightforward way of acquiring citizenship. If a person is born within the territorial boundaries of a country, they are usually considered a citizen of that country. In some cases, citizenship may also be granted to individuals born to citizens of that country, even if they were born outside of its territory. Naturalization is the process of acquiring citizenship through a legal process, such as by living in a country for a certain period of time, passing a citizenship test, and taking an oath of allegiance to the country. This process is usually available to individuals who were not born in the country, but have chosen to live there and become permanent residents. Education is not a requirement for citizenship, but it may be a factor in some cases. For example, some countries may require applicants to demonstrate a certain level of proficiency in the country's language or to pass a civics test to demonstrate knowledge of the country's history and government. In summary, citizenship of a state is based on several requirements such as birthright, naturalization, and in some cases education, but not marriage.

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The Economic Community for West African States (ECOWAS) was established primarily to promote economic growth and development among member states. ECOWAS was created in 1975 to foster economic cooperation and integration among West African countries. The community aims to improve the living standards of people in the region by facilitating free movement of goods, people, and services, harmonizing economic policies and programs, and promoting regional trade and investment. While ECOWAS has pursued various objectives over the years, its primary goal has been to enhance economic development in West Africa.

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A confederal system of government is one in which all the component units (such as states or provinces) are sovereign. This means that each unit has the highest authority and independence within its own jurisdiction, and the central government only has limited powers that are delegated to it by the constituent units. In a confederal system, the central government is not supreme, and decisions are made through a system of negotiation and compromise between the different units. This type of government is often used to manage a diverse population, where different regions have different needs and interests, and a strong central government would not be appropriate. An example of a confederal system is the former government of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.

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In a monocephalous executive system of government, all executive powers are vested in the head of government, who is usually referred to as the President, Prime Minister or any other title used to designate the highest-ranking official of the government. This means that the person who holds this position has the authority to make important decisions that affect the country or state. They are responsible for ensuring that laws are implemented and enforced, managing the economy, negotiating with other countries, and making decisions about national security. The Chief Justice is usually the head of the judiciary branch, while the Speaker is in charge of the legislative branch, and therefore they do not hold executive power in this system.

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One-party system encourages and often ends up in a dictatorship. A one-party system is a type of government where there is only one political party that is legally allowed to exist and hold power. This means that there is no competition in elections, as only members of the ruling party are allowed to run for office. This lack of competition and political opposition can result in a concentration of power in the hands of a small group of people within the ruling party, which can lead to authoritarianism and oppression of dissenting voices. In a one-party system, there is usually no freedom of expression, and citizens are not able to freely express their opinions or ideas without fear of retribution from the government. Therefore, a one-party system is not conducive to democracy, fair electoral contests, or freedom of expression.

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People's political values are continuously shaped by education, family, and media, but not by the ombudsman. Education can provide individuals with information and skills that can shape their political views and values. For example, formal education in schools and universities can provide individuals with knowledge of government systems and political ideologies. Family can also play a significant role in shaping political values, as individuals often learn from the political beliefs and opinions of their parents and other family members. Media, including television, radio, newspapers, and the internet, can also shape political values by influencing what people know and how they interpret events and issues. An ombudsman is a public official who is responsible for investigating and addressing citizens' complaints about government agencies and public officials. An ombudsman does not typically shape people's political values, but rather serves to address issues and promote accountability in government.

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ECOWAS is facing many challenges, but one of the significant problems is colonial heritage. This refers to the negative effects of the historical colonial rule of European powers in West Africa, which has left a legacy of underdevelopment, political instability, and economic inequality in the region. This has made it difficult for ECOWAS to achieve its goals of promoting regional integration, economic growth, and development. The impact of colonial heritage can be seen in various aspects of the region's socio-economic and political realities, such as border disputes, ethnic conflicts, corruption, poverty, and weak institutional structures. These challenges hinder the ability of ECOWAS to facilitate movement of people, inter-state trading, sports and cultural exchange effectively, and to address other issues affecting the region.

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The United Nations Organization (UNO) aims to promote and encourage respect for human rights and freedoms. This means that the UNO strives to create a world where all people are treated with dignity and equality, and where their basic human rights are protected. These rights include things like the right to life, freedom of speech, and access to education and healthcare. The UNO works towards this objective by developing international standards and agreements on human rights, monitoring and reporting on human rights violations, and providing support and resources to countries and communities to promote and protect human rights.

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A public corporation is a type of organization that is created by a special law called an "act of parliament." This law gives the public corporation certain powers and responsibilities, which are usually related to providing public services. While the public corporation is semi-independent, meaning it has some autonomy, it is still ultimately accountable to the government and the public for its actions. So, in short, the correct answer is "an act of parliament."

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Local governments can be effectively controlled to live up to their mandate in the following ways:

1. Financial control and auditing: Requiring local governments to keep proper accounts which are regularly audited, and scrutinised by the state and by independent auditors, checks the misuse of funds.
2. Legislative control: The state House of Assembly makes the laws under which local governments operate, approves their budgets and can summon local officials to account for their stewardship.
3. Judicial control: The courts can review the actions of local government and declare unlawful decisions null and void, keeping them within the limits of the law.
4. Administrative supervision by the state: The state Ministry of Local Government issues guidelines, inspects operations and can query or sanction erring councils.
5. Popular and democratic control: Periodic elections, a vigilant press and an active local citizenry hold council officials accountable and can vote out non-performing officers.
6. Control by anti-corruption and monitoring agencies: Bodies such as the anti-corruption commissions investigate and prosecute fraud and abuse of office in local councils.
7. Public inquiries and commissions: Government can set up commissions of inquiry to probe allegations of mismanagement and recommend corrective measures.

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The powers of government are limited by a number of factors, explained below:

1. The constitution: A written constitution spells out and defines the powers of each arm of government and prohibits it from acting beyond its lawful authority, thereby restraining government.
2. Separation of powers: Dividing governmental powers among the executive, legislature and judiciary, with each acting as a check on the others, prevents any single arm from becoming too powerful.
3. Fundamental human rights: The entrenched rights of citizens, such as freedom of speech, association and personal liberty, set boundaries that government may not lawfully cross.
4. The judiciary and judicial review: An independent judiciary can declare the actions and laws of government null and void where they are unconstitutional, thus limiting governmental power.
5. Public opinion: The organised views of the people, expressed through the press, elections and protests, compel government to act within acceptable limits.
6. Pressure groups and the mass media: These expose abuses, mobilise opinion and put pressure on government to be accountable and restrained.
7. Periodic elections: The knowledge that they must face the electorate at regular intervals restrains those in power from abusing their authority.

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Since independence in 1960, Nigeria's engagement with other nations has been shaped by a number of difficulties. Five of these problems are explained below.

1. Financial constraints: Nigeria's ambition to play a leading role in Africa and the world often outstripped her resources. Commitments such as funding liberation movements, contributing to ECOMOG peacekeeping in Liberia and Sierra Leone, and hosting international events placed a heavy burden on an economy already troubled by debt and fluctuating oil revenue.
2. Ingratitude of beneficiary states: Nigeria gave generous assistance to many African countries, yet several of them showed little appreciation. Some beneficiaries voted against Nigeria at international bodies or sided with her rivals, and a few even expelled Nigerian nationals, giving rise to the complaint that her "big brother" diplomacy yielded few loyal friends.
3. Domestic instability: Frequent military coups, the civil war (1967 to 1970), ethnic and religious conflicts, and unstable civilian rule weakened Nigeria's image abroad and reduced her credibility as a champion of good governance and democracy.
4. Interference and rivalry from the great powers: Cold War politics and the interests of former colonial masters, especially Britain, France and the United States, limited Nigeria's freedom of action. France in particular, entrenched in francophone West Africa, frequently worked against Nigerian leadership in the sub-region.
5. Poor image caused by corruption and indiscipline: Corruption, drug trafficking, advance-fee fraud ("419") and human-rights abuses damaged Nigeria's reputation, subjected her citizens to humiliating visa restrictions, and undermined the respect she sought in the international community.

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Public opinion is an important aspect of the democratic process for the following reasons:

1. It guides government policy: Democratic governments rely on the views of the people in formulating and adjusting policies so that these reflect the wishes of the governed.
2. It ensures accountability: Through public opinion citizens express approval or disapproval of government actions, compelling those in power to be answerable to the people.
3. It legitimises government: A government that enjoys the support of public opinion governs with authority and acceptance, while one that loses it forfeits its legitimacy.
4. It checks abuse of power: The fear of adverse public opinion restrains rulers from arbitrary and oppressive conduct.
5. It promotes participation: The formation and expression of public opinion draw citizens into the affairs of the state, deepening democratic participation.
6. It influences elections: Public opinion determines how people vote and thus decides who wins and who loses power, which is the essence of democracy.
7. It aids peaceful change: By providing a channel for grievances to be aired and addressed, it reduces tension and encourages orderly change.

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Democracy is the most popular system of government because of the following features:

1. Popular participation: It allows the people to take part in government through periodic free and fair elections and to choose those who govern them, giving them a sense of ownership.
2. Rule of law: Everybody, governors and governed alike, is subject to the same law, which protects citizens against arbitrary and oppressive rule.
3. Protection of fundamental human rights: Democracy guarantees the freedoms of speech, association, religion and the press, allowing citizens to live in dignity.
4. Accountability of government: Those in power are answerable to the people and can be voted out, which discourages abuse of office and promotes responsible governance.
5. Existence of an organised opposition: A recognised opposition checks the excesses of the ruling party and offers the people an alternative choice.
6. Equality of all citizens: It rests on the principle of one person, one vote, and treats all citizens as equal before the law regardless of status.
7. Peaceful change of government: It provides an orderly and constitutional means of changing leaders, thereby reducing violence and instability.

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The judiciary is kept independent of the control of the executive and legislature for the following reasons:

1. To ensure impartial justice: An independent judiciary can decide cases purely on their merit and according to law, without fear or favour from the other arms of government.
2. To protect the fundamental rights of citizens: Only a free judiciary can defend citizens against the abuse of power and safeguard their constitutional rights and liberties.
3. To uphold the rule of law: Independence enables the courts to apply the law equally to all persons, including government itself, thereby maintaining the supremacy of the law.
4. To act as a check on the other arms: Through judicial review the judiciary can pronounce the actions and laws of the executive and legislature unconstitutional, but it can only do so if it is free of their control.
5. To guarantee fair hearing: An impartial and independent court ensures that everyone, including opponents of government, receives a fair and unbiased trial.
6. To resolve disputes justly: It settles disputes between citizens, and between citizens and the state, in a manner that commands public confidence.
7. To prevent tyranny and dictatorship: Judicial independence stops the concentration of power in one arm and thereby guards against arbitrary and dictatorial rule.

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Whenever the military seized power in Nigeria, the practice of democracy was suspended and its institutions were undermined. Five ways in which democracy was stalled are identified below.

1. Suspension of the constitution: The military set aside the democratic constitution and ruled instead by decrees which could not be challenged in the courts, thereby destroying the supreme law that guaranteed democratic government.
2. Abolition of elective institutions: Elected legislatures at the federal and state levels were dissolved and no elections were held. Law-making, an essentially democratic function, was taken over by the Supreme Military Council or a Ruling Council.
3. Banning of political parties and political activity: Political parties were proscribed and open partisan activity was prohibited, denying citizens the freedom to organise and to compete for power through the ballot box.
4. Suppression of fundamental human rights: Freedom of speech, of the press and of association was curtailed, critics and journalists were detained without trial, and ouster clauses removed many matters from the jurisdiction of the courts.
5. Concentration of power and fusion of functions: Executive and legislative powers were fused in the military hierarchy, the principle of separation of powers was abandoned, and rule was by command from the top rather than by consent of the governed.

In these ways each military take-over halted the growth of democratic culture and institutions in Nigeria.

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The Independence Constitution of 1960, though it granted Nigeria self-rule, had a number of weaknesses:

1. Retention of the British monarch as Head of State: Nigeria remained under the Queen, represented by a Governor-General, so the country was not yet a full republic and independence was incomplete.
2. Appeals still lay to the Privy Council in London: The final court of appeal remained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain, which detracted from full judicial sovereignty.
3. Human rights were not fully guaranteed or entrenched in a way that could not be tampered with: Although rights were provided for, the protections were weakened by wide exceptions, and enforcement machinery was inadequate.
4. It entrenched strong regionalism at the expense of the centre: By giving the regions great power, it encouraged regional and ethnic loyalties that threatened national unity.
5. Domination by the three major regions: The structure allowed the three large regions to dominate the minorities, whose fears and demands for separate states were not adequately met.
6. The amendment procedure was rigid and cumbersome: Changing the constitution required difficult procedures involving the regions, making needed reforms hard to achieve.
7. It was largely a product of compromise imposed from outside: Being negotiated at conferences dominated by British interests, it did not fully reflect the wishes of the people.

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Although colonial rule was primarily exploitative, both the British and the French left behind certain positive legacies in West Africa. Five of these are highlighted below.

1. Introduction of Western education: Through mission and government schools the colonial powers introduced literacy, formal schooling and, eventually, higher institutions. This produced the educated elite who later led the nationalist movements and staffed the post-independence administrations.
2. Development of modern infrastructure: Roads, railways, ports, bridges and telecommunication lines were constructed to move goods and people. Though built mainly to serve colonial trade, these facilities opened up the interior and formed the basis of modern transport systems.
3. Establishment of modern political institutions: The colonisers introduced central and local government structures, a formal civil service, constitutions, legislative councils and elections, which prepared the ground for the modern nation-states of West Africa.
4. Introduction of a money economy and modern commerce: The colonial powers replaced trade by barter with a common currency, banking, cash-crop production and international trade, thereby integrating West Africa into the global economy.
5. A unified legal and administrative system: The British and the French each imposed a single system of law, courts and administration over many formerly independent communities, creating larger and more orderly political units and, in the British case, entrenching a measure of the rule of law.

Other benefits included improved health services and the amalgamation of small units into the large territories that became today's nations.