WAEC SSCE - Government - 2017

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The theory of separation of powers was propounded by Charles Montesquieu. The theory of separation of powers is a political idea that suggests that a government should be divided into three branches, each with its own specific responsibilities and powers. This way, no single branch of government would have too much power and could potentially abuse it. The three branches are the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The legislative branch makes the laws, the executive branch carries out the laws, and the judicial branch interprets the laws. By separating the powers, each branch can serve as a check and balance on the others, helping to ensure that no single branch becomes too powerful and that the government operates in a fair and just manner.

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Mass media is not a feature of a state. A state is a political entity that has sovereignty, meaning it has the supreme power within its territory and makes its own rules and laws. A state also has a government, which is the group of people responsible for making and carrying out those rules and laws. Mass media, on the other hand, refers to the various means of communication, such as television, radio, newspapers, and the internet, that are used to reach a large audience. While mass media can play a significant role in shaping public opinion and informing the public about political issues, it is not considered a defining feature of a state.

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Bicameralism is necessary in a federal state to demonstrate that localized interests receive adequate representation. Bicameralism refers to a system of government that has two legislative chambers, typically an upper house and a lower house. In a federal state, the upper house is usually designed to represent the interests of the various regions or states within the federation. This is because each state has its own unique set of interests and concerns that should be taken into account when making laws at the national level. By having a bicameral legislature, the federal government can ensure that each state has an equal say in the legislative process. This helps to ensure that the interests of all regions are adequately represented and that no state is marginalized or overlooked. This system helps to promote cooperation and collaboration between the various regions, which is essential for maintaining a strong and stable federal system. Overall, bicameralism is an important feature of federalism because it helps to ensure that localized interests receive adequate representation in the legislative process.

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The crown colonies in the British West Africa were administered through "direct rule." Direct rule is a form of colonial administration in which the colonial power (in this case, Great Britain) exercises full control over the colony, without the participation of the local people in the administration of the colony. This system of administration was characterized by a centralized government that operated from the capital city of each colony. The colonial governor, who was appointed by the colonial power, had the final say on all matters related to the administration of the colony, including the enactment of laws and the imposition of taxes. This system was in contrast to indirect rule, which allowed the local rulers to have some measure of control over their territories, while still subject to the ultimate authority of the colonial power. Direct rule was a common method of colonial administration in British West Africa, which included Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and The Gambia.

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The Secretary of State for the colonies was responsible for initiating and overseeing colonial policies for the British government. This meant that they were in charge of making decisions and rules for the British colonies, which could range from economic policies to administrative regulations. The Secretary of State also worked with traditional rulers in the colonies, to ensure that the policies implemented were in line with local customs and traditions. The primary goal of the Secretary of State was to maintain control and stability in the colonies, rather than fighting for the interest of the people or promoting democratization of local governments.

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A constitution is considered flexible if it is easy to amend. This means that changes can be made to the constitution relatively quickly and with a simple majority vote or through a special procedure. On the other hand, a constitution that is difficult to amend, such as requiring a two-thirds majority or a lengthy and complicated process, is considered inflexible. An inflexible constitution is often seen as more stable and enduring, as it provides a strong framework for governance that is difficult to change, while a flexible constitution allows for more frequent updates and adjustments to reflect changing circumstances and values.

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Government is defined as an agency established to manage the affairs of the state. The state refers to a political entity that has sovereignty over a geographic area and its inhabitants. The government is an agency or group of people that is authorized by the state to manage its affairs, such as creating laws, collecting taxes, maintaining public order, and providing public services. The government is responsible for upholding the rule of law and ensuring that citizens are protected and their rights are respected. It is also responsible for creating policies and programs that promote the well-being of its citizens and the development of the state. The government can take different forms, such as a democracy, monarchy, republic, or dictatorship, depending on the political system in place in the state. In summary, government is defined as an agency established to manage the affairs of the state, which refers to a political entity that has sovereignty over a geographic area and its inhabitants. The government is responsible for upholding the rule of law, protecting citizens, providing public services, and promoting the well-being and development of the state.

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The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was formally established on May 28, 1975 in Lagos, Nigeria. ECOWAS is a regional organization consisting of 15 countries in West Africa. Its goal is to promote economic cooperation and integration among its member states, as well as to encourage political and social stability in the region. Some of the ways it does this include facilitating trade between member states, promoting investment, and supporting the development of infrastructure and other key industries. In simple terms, ECOWAS helps countries in West Africa work together to improve their economies and make life better for the people who live there.

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The answer is "constitution". A constitution is a set of rules and principles that govern a country or an organization. It serves as a framework for how the government operates, how power is divided and shared, and what rights and freedoms are guaranteed to the citizens or members. Constitutions typically outline the structure and powers of the government, the rights and responsibilities of individuals, and the procedures for making and enforcing laws. They are usually written documents that are considered to be the supreme law of the land, meaning that all other laws and regulations must be in compliance with the constitution. In summary, a constitution is a crucial document that outlines how a country or organization is governed, and it helps to ensure that the government operates fairly and in accordance with the rule of law.

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The answer is "referendum". A referendum is a vote in which the entire electorate of a country or a specific region is asked to either vote "yes" or "no" on a specific political issue or proposal. The outcome of the referendum is determined by the majority of votes, and it is considered to be a direct form of democracy. Referendums are often used to decide on significant political issues or changes, such as constitutional amendments, major policy changes, or even independence referendums.

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A corrupt judicial system erodes the observance of the rule of law. The rule of law is the principle that all individuals, institutions, and governments are subject to the law and should be held accountable for their actions. It requires that laws be applied equally and impartially to all individuals, regardless of their social status or political influence. A corrupt judicial system undermines this principle by allowing individuals to escape accountability for their actions and by creating a culture of impunity. This erodes public trust in the justice system and can lead to social instability, as people lose confidence in their ability to seek justice through the courts.

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The guiding principle of communism is "from each according to his/her ability, and to each according to his/her need." This means that in a communist society, everyone would contribute to society according to their abilities or skills, and receive from society according to their needs. In other words, people would work and produce goods and services based on their talents and capabilities, and then these goods and services would be distributed to everyone in the society based on their needs, not based on their wealth, qualifications, race, or status. This principle is meant to ensure that everyone has access to the basic necessities of life, regardless of their individual circumstances, and that no one is left behind or forgotten. It is a central tenet of communist ideology, which seeks to create a more equal and just society through collective ownership of the means of production and the elimination of private property.

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The right to life is a fundamental right. The right to life is a universal human right that is recognized by international law and many national constitutions. It is the right to be protected from arbitrary deprivation of life by the state or other actors. This means that every person has the right to live and be protected from any threat to their life, including violence, torture, and other forms of harm. This right is considered to be fundamental because it is necessary for the enjoyment of all other human rights. Without the right to life, other rights, such as the right to education, the right to criticize the government, or the right to hold public office, would be meaningless. Therefore, of the options given, the right to life is the fundamental right because it is essential for the enjoyment of all other human rights.

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The function of political education through rallies and newspapers is a function of political parties. Political parties are organizations that aim to participate in government by putting forward candidates for elections and promoting their policies and ideas. They often use rallies and newspapers to educate the public about their policies, values, and objectives. At rallies, they give speeches, hold debates, and engage with the public to share their message. Through newspapers, they can reach a wider audience, provide more detailed information about their policies, and respond to questions and criticisms from the public. In this way, political parties play an important role in educating the public about politics and helping them make informed decisions when it comes to voting and participating in government.

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A system of government which is based on public ownership of means of production and distribution is called socialism. In this type of system, the resources and industries that drive the economy, such as factories, farms, and transportation, are owned and controlled by the government rather than by private individuals. The goal of socialism is to distribute wealth and resources more equally among the population and provide for the basic needs of all citizens.

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The civil/public servant among the options listed is the "Minister of Education." A civil/public servant is a person who works for the government and is responsible for carrying out the policies and programs of the government. The Minister of Education is a government official who is responsible for overseeing the education sector of a country. This includes managing the policies and programs related to primary, secondary, and tertiary education, as well as vocational training and adult education. The Minister of Education is appointed by the head of state or government and is typically a member of the ruling party or coalition. As a civil/public servant, the Minister of Education is expected to be impartial and serve the interests of the public rather than any particular political party or individual.

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A political party is significant because it seeks political power. A political party is a group of people who share similar political beliefs and come together to contest elections and gain control of government. The primary objective of a political party is to gain political power, whether it is at the local, state, or national level. Political parties do this by presenting their policies and ideas to the electorate, campaigning for support, and winning elections. Once in power, they use their control of government to implement their policies and make decisions that affect people's lives. Political parties play a crucial role in democracy by providing a channel for citizens to express their political preferences and participate in the political process. They also help to create a stable political environment by providing a framework for resolving political disputes and ensuring that political power is transferred peacefully from one government to another.

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The electoral system in which the winner should have more than all the votes of all the other contestants put together is called the absolute majority system. In an absolute majority system, a candidate or a proposition must receive more than half of the total votes cast in order to win. This means that if there are three or more candidates, the winner must receive more votes than the combined total of all the other candidates. In other words, the winner must have an absolute majority of the votes. This type of electoral system is used in many democratic countries to ensure that the winner has broad support from the electorate. It helps to prevent candidates with limited support from winning elections and ensures that the winner has a clear mandate from the voters.

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According to Karl Marx, socialism developed as a consequence of the evils of capitalism. Marx believed that capitalism created social and economic inequality, with the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production) exploiting the proletariat (the working class). He argued that the pursuit of profit in a capitalist society resulted in the exploitation of the workers, who were paid less than the value of their labor. This led to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small group of capitalists, while the majority of the population suffered from poverty and deprivation. Marx believed that socialism offered a way to eliminate these inequalities and create a more just and equitable society, where the means of production would be owned and controlled by the workers themselves. This would lead to a more democratic and participatory society, where the needs of all would be met and the exploitation of the workers would be eliminated.

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The political party whose membership comprises people of high social status is called an "elite party." This type of party is typically made up of wealthy and influential individuals, such as businesspeople, politicians, and intellectuals. The members of an elite party usually have a lot of power and influence in society, and they often use their resources and connections to advance their political agendas. Elite parties tend to focus on issues that are important to the wealthy and powerful, such as economic policy and national security, and they often have a conservative or centrist political orientation. Overall, an elite party is a political organization that is primarily made up of individuals who hold a privileged position in society.

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Judicial review strengthens the power of the Supreme Court against the executive and the legislature. Judicial review is the power of the court to review and potentially invalidate actions taken by the executive or legislative branches of government. This power allows the Supreme Court to ensure that the actions of these branches of government are constitutional and comply with the law. By exercising judicial review, the Supreme Court can strike down laws or executive actions that are deemed to be unconstitutional or in violation of the law. This power gives the Supreme Court a significant check on the power of the executive and legislative branches of government, as it allows the court to hold these branches accountable and prevent them from overstepping their constitutional boundaries. Therefore, of the options given, judicial review is the one that strengthens the power of the Supreme Court against the executive and the legislature, as it allows the court to review and potentially invalidate the actions of these branches of government.

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In the United States of America, the legislative branch of the government is called Congress. This is the group of elected officials who make laws for the country. They work together to decide on new laws, modify existing laws, and oversee the government's activities. The two houses of Congress are the Senate and the House of Representatives.

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An effective way of strengthening societal institutions is through the expression of public opinion. Public opinion refers to the views, beliefs, and attitudes that are held by the general public on a particular issue or topic. When members of the public express their opinions, they can influence the decisions made by those in positions of power, including government officials and other leaders in society. The expression of public opinion is important for strengthening societal institutions because it helps to ensure that these institutions are responsive to the needs and desires of the people they serve. When members of the public are able to voice their concerns and provide feedback, it helps to create a more open and democratic society where everyone has a say in how things are done. Moreover, when people express their opinions publicly, it helps to create a sense of community and shared purpose. This can help to build stronger and more cohesive societies that are better equipped to deal with the challenges of the modern world. Overall, the expression of public opinion is an effective way of strengthening societal institutions. By allowing people to voice their views and concerns, it helps to ensure that these institutions remain accountable and responsive to the needs of the people they serve.

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A function of government is making of laws. This means that one of the main responsibilities of a government is to create laws that regulate and govern the behavior of individuals and organizations within a society. These laws help to maintain order, protect citizens' rights, and ensure that society functions smoothly. The process of making laws typically involves representatives from the government, such as elected officials, working together to draft and pass legislation. The laws are then enforced by various agencies of the government.

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The rights of citizens to benefit from public utility is classified as social rights. Social rights are rights that are related to social welfare, such as the right to education, healthcare, housing, and social security. They are typically provided by the government or other institutions to ensure that citizens have access to basic needs and services that support their well-being. The right to benefit from public utilities, such as access to clean water, electricity, transportation, and communication services, is an example of a social right. These utilities are typically provided by the government or other public entities, and are considered essential for individuals to participate fully in society and to have a basic standard of living. Social rights are often included in national constitutions or international human rights agreements, and are intended to ensure that all individuals have access to basic necessities and services, regardless of their social or economic status. In summary, the rights of citizens to benefit from public utility is classified as social rights, which are rights related to social welfare that ensure individuals have access to basic needs and services that support their well-being.

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The method that is not used by pressure groups to achieve their objectives is contesting for political positions. Pressure groups are organizations that seek to influence government policies and decisions without seeking to take political power themselves. They use various methods to achieve their objectives, such as employing lobbyists, embarking on demonstrations, and embarking on strikes and boycotts. Contesting for political positions, on the other hand, involves seeking political power through elections, which is a different approach from what pressure groups adopt. Pressure groups typically seek to influence policy from the outside, while political candidates seek to influence policy from within the government. Therefore, contesting for political positions is not a method used by pressure groups to achieve their objectives.

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The answer is "de jure one-party system". A de jure one-party system is a political system in which there is only one political party that is legally allowed to exist and operate. This means that other political parties are either banned or not recognized by the government. In a de jure one-party system, the ruling party typically controls all aspects of the government and has a monopoly on political power. This type of political system is often associated with authoritarian or totalitarian regimes, where the government seeks to control all aspects of society and suppress dissenting views. Examples of countries that have had de jure one-party systems include the Soviet Union, China under Mao Zedong, and North Korea. In contrast, a de facto one-party system is a political system in which one party dominates the political landscape, but other parties are technically allowed to exist and operate. This type of political system is often associated with countries that have a weak opposition or limited political competition, but without the legal prohibition of other parties. In summary, a de jure one-party system is a political system in which only one party is legally allowed to exist and operate, and it is often associated with authoritarian or totalitarian regimes.

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One feature of pre-independence constitutions in West Africa is the presence of executive and legislative councils. These councils were typically composed of appointed members who advised the colonial governor or administrator on matters of governance. The executive council consisted of high-ranking colonial officials, while the legislative council included both colonial officials and appointed African representatives. However, the African representatives often had limited power and were not able to make significant changes to the governance system. This feature of pre-independence constitutions reflects the limited autonomy and self-rule that African countries had under colonialism, and highlights the need for more inclusive and democratic governance structures in post-independence Africa.

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Military intervention into the politics of a state involves the seizure of power from a legitimate government by the armed forces. Military intervention is when the military, usually the armed forces, become involved in the political affairs of a country, often by taking over the government. This can occur when the military believes that the existing government is not adequately fulfilling its responsibilities or is unable to handle a crisis, and decides to step in and take control. This type of intervention is considered a violation of the principle of civilian control of the military, and is often met with international condemnation. When the military intervenes in this manner, it can result in a loss of democratic freedoms, human rights abuses, and instability in the country.

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The acceptability of the government in power by the governed is known as legitimacy. Legitimacy refers to the belief by the people that the government is just and has the right to make decisions and rule over them. This belief is based on the idea that the government was elected through fair and free elections, or that it has a long-standing tradition or history of ruling, and that it operates within the bounds of the law and the constitution. When a government has legitimacy, the people are more likely to comply with its laws and policies, and to support it in times of crisis.

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The body responsible for the implementation of law is the executive. The executive branch of government is responsible for enforcing and carrying out the laws created by the legislature. This includes various departments, agencies, and officials that are responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies. The executive branch is also responsible for managing the day-to-day operations of the government, including the administration of public programs and services. The judiciary is responsible for interpreting the law and resolving legal disputes, while the legislature is responsible for creating and passing laws. The court is a part of the judiciary and is responsible for hearing and deciding legal cases.

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In a military regime, the arms of government that are usually fused are the legislature and the executive. This means that the military leaders who have taken control of the government also have the power to make laws and enforce them. In a democratic system, the legislature (usually a parliament or congress) is responsible for making laws while the executive (usually the president or prime minister) is responsible for enforcing them. However, in a military regime, the military leaders who have seized power often control both branches of government, effectively consolidating power in their hands. This lack of separation of powers can lead to abuses of power, human rights violations, and suppression of dissent.

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One duty of a good citizen is to respect the dignity and rights of others. Being a good citizen means recognizing that everyone is entitled to their own dignity and human rights. This means treating others with respect, even if we don't always agree with them or share the same beliefs. It also means standing up for the rights of others, especially when they are being discriminated against or treated unfairly. Respecting the dignity and rights of others is essential for creating a just and peaceful society. It helps to promote equality, tolerance, and understanding between different groups of people. By treating others with kindness and compassion, we can build stronger and more resilient communities that are better equipped to deal with the challenges of the modern world. Overall, one of the most important duties of a good citizen is to respect the dignity and rights of others. This means treating everyone with kindness and compassion, and standing up for those who are being mistreated or marginalized. By doing so, we can help to create a more just and equitable society for all.

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The statement "It is financed mainly by private individuals" about a public corporation is not true. A public corporation is a type of business organization that is owned by the government and operates as a separate entity from the government. It is usually established by an act of parliament and is managed by a board of directors. A significant amount of capital is often required for its establishment. However, public corporations are not financed mainly by private individuals. Instead, they are typically funded through a combination of government grants, loans, and revenue generated by the corporation itself. Public corporations are established to carry out specific tasks or provide specific services to the public, and their purpose is to serve the public good, not to generate profit for private individuals.

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The government maintains law and order through various means, including the police, immigration, the legislature, and the prison service. Out of these options, the one that the government does NOT use to maintain law and order is the legislature. The legislature is responsible for making laws, but it is the police, immigration, and the prison service that enforce these laws and maintain order. The police enforce the law by preventing and detecting crime, apprehending offenders, and ensuring public safety. Immigration controls the movement of people across national borders and enforces laws related to immigration and citizenship. The prison service is responsible for the custody and rehabilitation of offenders. Therefore, while the legislature plays an important role in creating laws that govern society, it is not directly involved in maintaining law and order.

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The post-Second World War nationalism in West Africa was characterized by increased agitation. After the Second World War, many African countries, including those in West Africa, began to demand independence from their colonial rulers. This led to a rise in nationalism, with people coming together to fight for their rights and demand self-rule. The movement was marked by protests, strikes, and other forms of civil disobedience, which showed the determination of the people to be free. Although the road to independence was long and difficult, the agitation for self-rule ultimately paid off, and many West African countries gained their independence in the years that followed.

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The primary objective of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) is to eradicate poverty in Africa. NEPAD was established by African leaders to promote economic development and integration, and to eradicate poverty on the African continent. It aims to achieve this objective by promoting good governance, encouraging private investment, promoting regional integration and infrastructure development, and supporting sustainable development initiatives.

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For democracy to be sustained in a country, it needs a well-informed electorate. This means that citizens must be educated about their rights and responsibilities, as well as the political process. Informed citizens are more likely to participate in elections, hold their leaders accountable, and advocate for policies that benefit the majority. In addition, a free and fair electoral commission is essential to ensure that elections are conducted in a transparent and unbiased manner. A large police force is not a requirement for sustaining democracy and may, in fact, be detrimental if it is used to intimidate or suppress political opposition. Finally, having a rich political leader is not necessary for sustaining democracy; rather, it is more important to have leaders who are committed to democratic principles and willing to serve the interests of the people.

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A corrupt judicial system erodes the observance of the rule of law. The rule of law is a principle that ensures that everyone in a society is subject to the same laws and that those laws are applied fairly and consistently. When the judicial system is corrupt, it means that the judges, lawyers, or other court officials may be accepting bribes or other forms of illegal payment to influence their decision-making process. This can result in people with power or money being able to manipulate the legal system in their favor, while others without such resources may be unfairly disadvantaged. This erodes trust in the legal system and undermines the rule of law, which is a cornerstone of a just and stable society.

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One of the defects associated with most pre-independence constitutions in British West Africa was the veto power of the Governor. The Governor, who was appointed by the British government, had the power to veto any legislation passed by the legislative council, which was often dominated by African representatives. This meant that the Governor could prevent any law that was not in line with British interests or policies from being enacted, regardless of the wishes of the local population. This undermined the democratic process and the autonomy of the colonies. Additionally, it created tensions between the African representatives and the British authorities, which often resulted in protests and conflicts.

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The colonial administration in West Africa was a result of the need for raw materials and markets by European powers. European countries, such as Britain, France, and Portugal, established colonies in West Africa to exploit the natural resources, such as gold, timber, rubber, and cocoa. They also sought new markets for their manufactured goods, including textiles and weapons. The colonizers also imposed their political and economic systems on the local populations, leading to the underdevelopment of West Africa. The introduction of Western education was a secondary goal, aimed at producing a new class of administrators who would help to manage the colonies efficiently.

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Five ways the central government can improve the local government system in West Africa

1. Adequate and regular funding: The central government should grant local councils a statutory share of national revenue and release such funds regularly and promptly, so that they have the resources to provide services and execute development projects.
2. Granting greater autonomy: Reducing excessive control and interference by the central and state governments in the affairs of local councils would allow them to plan, take decisions and perform their functions more freely and effectively.
3. Training of personnel: Government should establish training institutions and organise regular staff-development programmes to equip local government workers and officials with the skills and competence needed for efficient administration.
4. Enlarging the scope of functions and powers: Assigning clearly defined and meaningful responsibilities to local councils, backed by law, would strengthen their relevance and enable them to serve their communities better.
5. Ensuring democratic elections into councils: Government should guarantee regular, free and fair elections into local government offices instead of appointing caretaker committees, so that councils are accountable and responsive to the people.

Other measures include curbing corruption through effective auditing and supervision, and providing infrastructure and logistical support to the councils.

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(a) Meaning of rights

Rights are the legitimate claims, freedoms and privileges which a citizen is entitled to enjoy within a state, and which are recognised and protected by law. They are the entitlements that enable an individual to develop his personality and participate fully in the political, social and economic life of the community. Examples include the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of movement and the right to vote and be voted for.

(b) Four limitations on the rights of a citizen

1. The rights of others: A citizen's rights end where the rights of other citizens begin; one may not exercise a right in a way that injures or infringes the equal rights of fellow citizens.
2. Public safety, order and morality: Rights may be curtailed in the interest of public peace, health, safety and decency, for example restrictions on unlawful assembly or obscene publications.
3. State security and emergency: During war, insurrection or a declared state of emergency, government may lawfully suspend or restrict certain rights such as freedom of movement in order to protect the state.
4. Court sentence or lawful detention: A person convicted by a competent court or lawfully detained loses certain rights, such as personal liberty and freedom of movement, for the duration of the sentence.

Other valid limitations include defamation and contempt of court laws, and laws protecting the reputation and rights of others.

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(a) Meaning of a simple majority system

A simple majority system, also called the first-past-the-post or plurality system, is an electoral method in which the candidate who scores the highest number of votes cast in a constituency is declared the winner, whether or not that number amounts to more than half of the total votes. The winner need only secure more votes than any other single candidate; he does not need an absolute majority (more than fifty per cent) of all votes cast.

(b) Four demerits of the system

1. It can produce a minority winner: Where several candidates contest, the winner may be elected with far less than half of the total votes, so that a majority of voters actually voted against the winner.
2. It wastes many votes: All votes cast for the losing candidates count for nothing, so a large section of the electorate ends up with no representative of its choice.
3. It does not ensure fair representation: A party may win a large share of the national vote yet secure very few seats, so seats won do not accurately reflect the votes obtained.
4. It encourages a two-party dominance: Small parties find it difficult to win seats, which discourages minority parties and narrows the range of choice for voters.

Another demerit is that it may encourage electoral malpractice and gerrymandering, since only a plurality is needed to win a seat.

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(a) Meaning of foreign policy

Foreign policy refers to the set of principles, objectives and strategies which a state adopts and pursues in its dealings and relationships with other states and international organisations, in order to protect and promote its own national interest. It is the guiding framework that determines how a country conducts its external relations in areas such as diplomacy, trade, defence and international cooperation.

(b) Four factors that influence Nigeria's foreign policy

1. National interest: The overriding desire to protect Nigeria's security, sovereignty, economic well-being and the welfare of its citizens shapes the direction of its external relations.
2. Geographical location: Nigeria's position in West Africa and its size have made it emphasise good neighbourliness and leadership in African and West African affairs, such as the promotion of ECOWAS.
3. Economic factors: The state of the national economy, especially dependence on oil exports and the need for trade, investment and foreign exchange, strongly influences the policies Nigeria pursues abroad.
4. Ideology and public opinion: The country's commitment to Africa as the centrepiece of its policy, anti-colonialism and non-alignment, together with the views of the citizens and the press, guide its foreign policy decisions.

Other influencing factors include military strength, historical and colonial ties, and the personality and disposition of the leaders in power.

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(a) Difference between a de jure and a de facto one-party system

A de jure one-party system is one in which the existence of only one political party is legally and constitutionally established. Here the law expressly forbids the formation or operation of any other party, so that the single party is the only party recognised and permitted by the constitution, as was the case in some socialist states.

A de facto one-party system, on the other hand, is one in which, although the constitution and law permit the formation of more than one party, in practice only one party dominates and effectively rules the state. Other parties may legally exist but are so weak, ineffective or absent that a single party controls power in fact though not in law.

(b) Four advantages of a multi-party system

1. It provides the electorate with a wide choice: Voters can choose among several parties and candidates offering different programmes, thereby making a more meaningful choice.
2. It offers an effective opposition: Rival parties check the party in power, criticise its policies and expose its errors, thereby curbing the abuse of power and dictatorship.
3. It promotes and protects democracy: The presence of many parties encourages debate, popular participation and the peaceful competition for power that are essential features of a democracy.
4. It provides an alternative government: Should the ruling party fail or lose an election, another party is ready to form the government, ensuring continuity and stability.

Other advantages include the wider representation of diverse interests and opinions, and greater accountability of the government to the people.

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Five contributions of Nigeria towards the growth of ECOWAS

1. Role in the formation of the community: Nigeria, alongside Togo, played the leading role in initiating and founding ECOWAS through the Treaty of Lagos in 1975, and Lagos hosted the signing of the treaty.
2. Hosting of the Secretariat: Nigeria provided a home for major organs of the community, with the Executive Secretariat sited in Abuja, and gave logistical support to its running.
3. Major financial contributor: Nigeria bears the largest share of the community's budget, paying substantial financial contributions that keep the organisation and its programmes running.
4. Peacekeeping efforts: Nigeria took the lead in forming and funding ECOMOG, the community's monitoring group, and contributed the bulk of the troops that restored peace in war-torn member states such as Liberia and Sierra Leone.
5. Promotion of free movement and economic cooperation: Nigeria championed and implemented the protocol on the free movement of persons, goods and services, opening its borders and markets to nationals of member states and encouraging regional trade.

Nigeria has also provided energy and technical assistance to member states and given diplomatic leadership to strengthen unity within the sub-region.

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Functions of the Ogboni Secret Society in the pre-colonial Yoruba political system

The Ogboni (Osugbo in some areas) was a powerful cult of elders and titled men that acted as a check on the Oba and played a central role in Yoruba governance. Its functions included the following:

1. Judicial function: The Ogboni served as the highest court of justice, trying serious cases, especially those involving bloodshed (homicide), and settling major disputes within the community.
2. Check on the Oba's powers: It acted as a restraint on the authority of the Oba, guarding against tyranny and the abuse of power by the monarch.
3. Selection and installation of the Oba: The society took part in choosing a new Oba from the ruling houses and in the rites of his installation.
4. Removal of a bad Oba: Where an Oba became despotic or unacceptable, the Ogboni could reject him and convey to him the order to abdicate or commit suicide, thus removing a tyrannical ruler.
5. Legislative and advisory function: The society deliberated on important matters of state and advised the Oba and the council of chiefs on the making of laws and major decisions.
6. Religious and custodial function: As a cult that worshipped the earth deity, it performed religious rituals and served as custodian of the customs, traditions and moral order of the community.

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(a) Meaning of a legitimate government

A legitimate government is one that has come to power in accordance with the accepted rules, laws and constitutional procedures of a state, and which is therefore recognised and accepted by the majority of the people as the rightful authority entitled to make and enforce laws. Its right to rule flows from the consent of the governed, usually expressed through a free and fair electoral process, and it exercises power lawfully rather than by force or fraud.

(b) Four features of legitimacy

1. Consent of the governed: The government enjoys the willing acceptance and support of the majority of citizens, who regard its authority as rightful and binding on them.
2. Constitutionality: The government is formed and operates in strict conformity with the provisions of the constitution and the established laws of the land.
3. Free and fair elections: Those in power attain office through a credible electoral process in which citizens freely choose their leaders, giving the government a genuine popular mandate.
4. Legal exercise of power: The authority of the government is derived from and limited by law, so that its actions are lawful, and obedience to it is regarded as a moral and civic duty rather than mere submission to force.

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Five contributions of Herbert Macaulay to the political development of Nigeria

1. Founding of the first political party: In 1923 he founded the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), the first modern political party in Nigeria, which introduced organised party politics into the country.
2. Winning elective seats: Through the NNDP he mobilised voters and won the elective seats into the Lagos Legislative Council created under the Clifford Constitution of 1922, demonstrating the value of the franchise to Nigerians.
3. Founding the NCNC: In 1944 he joined forces with Nnamdi Azikiwe to form the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), a nationwide nationalist movement that fought for self-government, and he became its first president.
4. Use of the press for enlightenment: He established and used the Lagos Daily News to criticise oppressive colonial policies, educate the people politically and awaken national consciousness.
5. Championing the rights of the people: He defended the interests of Nigerians against colonial injustice, notably taking up the Eleko affair (the deposition of Oba Eshugbayi Eleko) and other cases, thereby resisting arbitrary colonial rule.

For these efforts he is widely regarded as the father of Nigerian nationalism.