WAEC SSCE - Commerce - 2014

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The part of authorized capital of a company that is actually sold to shareholders and for which they have made payment is called the "paid-up capital". This means that the shareholders have fulfilled their obligation to pay for the shares they purchased from the company. The paid-up capital is the actual amount of money that the company has received from shareholders, and it represents the company's equity capital. The other options are related to the concept of capital in a company, but they do not specifically refer to the part of authorized capital that has been sold to shareholders and for which payment has been made.

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The target of all marketing activities is the "consumer". This refers to the person or group of people who will ultimately use or consume the product or service being offered by the business. In marketing, the focus is on understanding the needs and wants of the consumer, and creating products or services that meet those needs in a way that is better than the competition. The consumer is the key to the success of any business, as it is their purchasing decisions that ultimately drive revenue and growth.

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Small-scale retailers continue to exist in spite of the dominance of large firms because they render personal service. Small-scale retailers are typically independent businesses that sell goods or services directly to consumers. They often operate on a smaller scale than larger firms, such as department stores or supermarkets. While large firms may have advantages in terms of economies of scale, marketing, and access to capital, small-scale retailers have several advantages that allow them to remain competitive. One of the main advantages of small-scale retailers is their ability to render personal service. Small retailers often develop personal relationships with their customers and provide a higher level of customer service than larger firms. This can include providing personalized recommendations, offering special deals or promotions, and addressing any concerns or complaints promptly. Personal service can create a loyal customer base, which can be a competitive advantage over larger firms that may not have the same level of personal interaction with customers. In addition, small-scale retailers can be more flexible in their operations and may be able to adapt more quickly to changes in the market or customer preferences. They may also be able to specialize in specific goods or services, which can help them to differentiate themselves from larger firms. In summary, small-scale retailers continue to exist in spite of the dominance of large firms because they can render personal service to their customers, which can create a loyal customer base. They can also be more flexible in their operations and may be able to specialize in specific goods or services, which can help them to differentiate themselves from larger firms.

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Buildings and machinery purchased for use in a business are examples of fixed assets. Fixed assets are long-term assets that are not intended to be sold or converted into cash within a year. They are used in the production or supply of goods and services and are expected to generate benefits over an extended period of time. Examples of fixed assets include land, buildings, machinery, vehicles, and equipment. These assets are recorded on the balance sheet of a business at their original cost, less any accumulated depreciation.

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The term "fiduciary issue" means money issued without gold backing. In other words, fiduciary issue refers to the paper money that a government issues without having an equivalent amount of gold or other precious metals to back it up. The value of this money is based on the trust (or fiduciary relationship) that people have in the government that issued it. This type of money is also known as fiat money, which derives its value from the government's decree or fiat.

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The central bank sometimes calls for special deposits from the commercial banks in order to reduce bank lending. A special deposit is a monetary tool used by the central bank to control the amount of money in circulation. When the central bank calls for special deposits, it requires commercial banks to deposit a certain amount of money with the central bank. This reduces the amount of money that commercial banks have available for lending to their customers. As a result, the banks are less able to offer loans to businesses and individuals, which can help to reduce inflation and stabilize the economy. In summary, the central bank calls for special deposits from commercial banks to reduce bank lending and control the amount of money in circulation. This helps to stabilize the economy and reduce inflation.

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In a hire purchase contract, the customer does not become the legal owner of the goods until they have fulfilled certain conditions. These conditions can vary, but typically involve making a certain number of payments or paying a certain amount of money. Once these conditions are met, the customer becomes the legal owner of the goods. In most cases, the customer will become the legal owner of the goods after making the last installment payment.

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The ratio between a country's exports and her imports prices is known as "terms of trade." Terms of trade is the value of a country's exports relative to the value of its imports. It reflects the prices of a country's exports compared to its imports. A country that has good terms of trade has its exports priced higher than its imports, which means that it can buy more imports for the same amount of exports. In contrast, a country that has poor terms of trade has its imports priced higher than its exports, which means that it has to give up more exports to buy the same amount of imports. Therefore, terms of trade is an important economic indicator that helps countries to assess the strength of their international trade.

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A business obtains part of its short-term capital from "trade credit". Trade credit is a form of financing where suppliers allow businesses to purchase goods or services on credit and pay at a later date, typically within 30 to 90 days. This allows the business to obtain the necessary goods or services without having to immediately pay for them in cash. Trade credit is a common source of short-term financing for many businesses, especially those with good credit history and established relationships with their suppliers. It is typically used to finance working capital needs, such as inventory or supplies, and can be an effective way to manage cash flow.

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The entertainment industry is classified under the commercial industry. The commercial industry includes all types of businesses that are involved in the buying and selling of goods and services for profit. The entertainment industry, in particular, includes businesses that provide entertainment to consumers, such as music, movies, television shows, live performances, and other forms of media. These businesses generate revenue by selling tickets, merchandise, and other products related to the entertainment they provide. The commercial industry also includes other types of businesses such as retail, hospitality, and financial services. These businesses all operate with the goal of making a profit, and they play an important role in the economy by creating jobs and generating income. In summary, the entertainment industry is classified under the commercial industry, which includes businesses involved in buying and selling goods and services for profit. The entertainment industry specifically involves providing entertainment to consumers and generating revenue through the sale of tickets, merchandise, and related products.

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A person who contributes money to a partnership business and is also involved in its general supervision is called an active partner. An active partner is one who is actively involved in the day-to-day operations of the partnership and has a say in the decision-making process. In a partnership, there are typically two types of partners: active partners and limited partners. An active partner is a full partner in the business and is responsible for the management of the partnership, including its finances, operations, and employees. They share in the profits and losses of the business and have unlimited liability for the debts of the partnership. On the other hand, a limited partner is a partner who contributes money to the partnership but is not involved in the management of the business. They have limited liability for the debts of the partnership and are typically only liable for the amount of their investment. Limited partners do not have a say in the day-to-day operations of the partnership. In summary, a person who contributes money to a partnership business and is also involved in its general supervision is called an active partner. They are responsible for the management of the business and share in the profits and losses of the partnership, as well as having unlimited liability for its debts. This is different from a limited partner, who contributes money to the partnership but is not involved in its management and has limited liability for its debts.

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The Consumer Protection Council is an organization responsible for protecting the rights of consumers. It places an obligation on producers to ensure that their products are wholesome and safe for use by consumers. This means that producers are responsible for ensuring that their products are not harmful to consumers in any way, and that they are of good quality. The obligation also means that producers should take steps to prevent any harm that might arise from the use of their products, and that they should provide appropriate warnings and instructions for use. The other options mentioned - being cheap, evading customs examination, and being branded - are not part of the obligations placed on producers by the Consumer Protection Council.

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The place where bankers meet daily to exchange cheques drawn on each other is known as a clearing house. A clearing house is a central location where banks come together to clear and settle their cheques and other financial transactions. When a customer deposits a cheque from another bank, the bank where the cheque is deposited will send the cheque to the clearing house for processing. The clearing house will then send the cheque to the bank where it was issued, and the bank will either accept or reject the cheque based on the availability of funds in the account. The clearing house helps to simplify the process of settling transactions between banks by providing a centralized location for the exchange of cheques and other financial instruments. This helps to reduce the risk of fraud and errors, and ensures that transactions are settled in a timely and efficient manner. In summary, a clearing house is the place where bankers meet daily to exchange cheques drawn on each other, providing a centralized location for the exchange of financial instruments and simplifying the process of settling transactions between banks. It is different from the capital market, money market, and discount houses, which are other types of financial institutions that serve different functions in the financial system.

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An insurance broker is engaged in commercial occupation. A commercial occupation refers to any business activity that is carried out for the purpose of making a profit. An individual engaged in a commercial occupation is usually involved in buying or selling goods or services, or providing professional advice or services to clients in exchange for payment. Of the options listed, a bricklayer and an engineer may be involved in construction or manufacturing, but they are not necessarily engaged in a commercial occupation if they are working for a government agency or a non-profit organization. A barber may be self-employed and earn money from cutting hair, but this may not necessarily be considered a commercial occupation. On the other hand, an insurance broker is a professional who helps clients find and purchase insurance policies from various providers. They earn commissions on the policies they sell, making them engaged in a commercial occupation. In summary, while all of the options listed are occupations, only the insurance broker can be considered engaged in a commercial occupation as they are involved in buying and selling insurance policies for profit.

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Shares, bonds, stocks, and debentures traded on the stock exchange are collectively called securities. Securities are financial instruments that represent ownership or debt in a company or organization. When an investor purchases securities, they essentially buy a portion of ownership in the company and can profit from the company's growth or receive income from interest payments. Securities can be bought and sold on the stock exchange, where their value is determined by market demand and supply. Overall, securities trading plays a vital role in the functioning of financial markets by providing companies with a means to raise capital and investors with opportunities to grow their wealth.

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A cheque that is issued more than six months ago and has not been cashed or presented for payment is known as a "stale cheque". The term "stale" refers to the fact that the cheque has been outstanding for a long time and is no longer fresh. The validity of a cheque is usually for six months from the date of issue, after which it becomes stale. A stale cheque may not be honored by the bank and the funds may not be available for withdrawal. Therefore, it is important to cash or deposit cheques promptly to avoid the risk of them becoming stale.

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Automatic vending is a system of buying products from a machine. In this system, a customer can select a product from a vending machine and pay for it directly without the need for a salesperson or cashier. The machine dispenses the product automatically once the payment has been made. This system is also known as automatic retailing or automatic selling. It is commonly used for selling snacks, beverages, and other small items in public places like schools, hospitals, airports, and train stations.

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A firm that specializes in packing and shipping of goods is known as a cargo handling company. These companies are responsible for the movement of goods from one place to another, which includes loading, unloading, and transport of cargo. They provide a wide range of services such as packing, storage, documentation, customs clearance, and insurance. Cargo handling companies are an essential part of the logistics industry and play a vital role in facilitating international trade by ensuring the safe and timely delivery of goods.

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An advertising campaign designed to sell one's own products at the expense of other brands is a competitive advertising campaign. Competitive advertising is a type of advertising that aims to persuade consumers to purchase one brand's products over those of a competitor. In a competitive advertising campaign, a company may highlight the perceived weaknesses of their competitors' products or offer a comparison between their own product and their competitors'. The goal is to persuade consumers that their product is superior and that they should choose it over the competitors'. This type of advertising can be effective in gaining market share and increasing sales, but it can also create tension and hostility between companies. Therefore, competitive advertising is a common strategy used by companies to gain a competitive edge in the market.

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The throwing of goods overboard to prevent a ship from sinking is known as jettison. Jettison is a term used in maritime law and refers to the act of throwing cargo, equipment, or any other weighty items overboard to lighten a ship's load during an emergency, such as to avoid sinking during a storm or due to damage to the vessel. This is done to ensure the safety of the crew and the ship itself. In such situations, the captain of the ship may order the jettison of some cargo to prevent the ship from capsizing or sinking. The lost cargo is usually considered a loss to the owner, and the shipping company may file a claim with their insurance company for the loss incurred. In summary, jettison is the throwing of goods overboard to prevent a ship from sinking during an emergency situation. It is done to ensure the safety of the crew and the ship and may result in a loss for the owner of the jettisoned goods.

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Carpentry is an activity classified under the constructive occupation. Constructive occupations involve activities that contribute to the physical construction or modification of buildings, infrastructure, or other structures. Carpentry involves working with wood to create, repair, or install structures such as walls, roofs, floors, and furniture. Therefore, it is classified as a constructive occupation.

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A fixed deposit account is beneficial to its holders because it typically offers a higher interest rate than a regular savings account. When you open a fixed deposit account, you deposit a fixed sum of money for a fixed period of time, usually ranging from a few months to several years. The bank pays you a fixed rate of interest on your deposit, which is typically higher than the interest rate paid on a regular savings account. Since the money in a fixed deposit account cannot be withdrawn until the end of the fixed period, this encourages people to save their money for a longer term. This can help people to plan their finances and achieve their financial goals. Furthermore, a fixed deposit account is a safe and secure investment as it is protected by the government's deposit insurance scheme, which ensures that your money is safe even if the bank were to fail. In summary, a fixed deposit account is beneficial to its holders because it provides a higher interest rate than a regular savings account, encourages long-term saving, and is a safe and secure investment. It does not allow customers to overdraw their accounts or issue cheques to settle huge debts, nor does it offer the opportunity to become a shareholder of the bank.

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The issue of a Certificate of Incorporation to a company means that it has legally come into being. Incorporation is the process of legally creating a new corporation or company. It involves filing the necessary documents with the relevant government agency, such as the Registrar of Companies, and paying the required fees. Once the government agency has reviewed and approved the application, it issues a Certificate of Incorporation to the company. The Certificate of Incorporation is a legal document that confirms the company's existence as a legal entity. It includes important information such as the company's name, address, date of incorporation, and the names of the company's directors and shareholders. The issuance of a Certificate of Incorporation means that the company is now a separate legal entity from its owners or shareholders. This means that the company can enter into contracts, sue and be sued, and conduct business in its own name. The company can also issue shares and raise capital through investments. In summary, the issue of a Certificate of Incorporation to a company means that it has legally come into being as a separate legal entity, and can conduct business and raise capital in its own name.

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An individual or company that engages in the transportation of any type of goods for a fee is called a common carrier. Common carriers are responsible for the safe and timely delivery of goods from one location to another. They transport goods for the general public and are available for hire to anyone who requires their services. Common carriers are legally responsible for any loss or damage to the goods they transport, and they must operate under specific regulations to ensure the safety and security of the goods and their customers.

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Foreign trade is concerned with the buying and selling of goods and services among countries. This can involve importing goods from other countries and exporting goods produced domestically to other countries. Foreign trade is important for economic growth and development as it allows countries to specialize in producing certain goods and services more efficiently, and to trade with other countries for goods and services that they cannot produce efficiently themselves.

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Fidelity guarantee insurance will only cover cashier's fraud. Fidelity guarantee insurance is a type of insurance policy that protects businesses against losses resulting from employee dishonesty, such as theft or fraud. The policy provides coverage for financial losses resulting from dishonest acts by employees, including embezzlement, forgery, or theft of company property. Cashier's fraud is a common type of employee dishonesty that is covered by fidelity guarantee insurance. This occurs when a cashier or other employee steals money from the company, such as by pocketing cash payments or manipulating the company's accounting records to hide fraudulent transactions. However, fidelity guarantee insurance does not cover losses resulting from other types of criminal activity, such as robbery or burglary, or from other business losses such as loss of profit or unpaid loans. These types of losses may be covered under other types of insurance policies, such as property insurance or business interruption insurance. In summary, fidelity guarantee insurance will only cover financial losses resulting from employee dishonesty, such as cashier's fraud, and does not cover other types of criminal activity or business losses.

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An auction sale is a system of sales where goods are sold to the highest bidder. In an auction, the seller offers goods or services for sale, and buyers place bids to purchase them. The highest bidder at the end of the auction is considered the winner and must pay for the goods or services purchased. Auction sales are common in various industries, including art, real estate, and commodities. They provide a fair and open platform for buyers to acquire goods or services at a competitive price.

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In insurance, risks that have no statistics for their calculations are considered as un-insurable risks. These risks are typically difficult or impossible to predict or quantify, making it difficult for insurance companies to assess the likelihood of the risk occurring and to determine the appropriate premium to charge. Examples of un-insurable risks include wars, nuclear accidents, and natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods. Insurance companies are in the business of managing risk, and they use statistical analysis to assess the likelihood of a risk occurring and to determine the appropriate premium to charge. However, for risks that are difficult or impossible to predict, it becomes impossible for insurance companies to accurately calculate the premium that would be required to cover the potential losses. Therefore, insurance companies typically do not offer coverage for un-insurable risks, or they may offer coverage at a very high premium that reflects the high level of uncertainty involved. In some cases, governments may step in to provide insurance coverage for un-insurable risks, such as through a national disaster insurance program.

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A central bank has many functions, but one of its main roles is to perform a supervisory role among all the banks in the country. This means that the central bank regulates and oversees the activities of all other banks in the country to ensure that they are operating in accordance with the laws and regulations set forth by the government. The central bank also monitors the financial health of banks and intervenes if necessary to prevent bank failures and protect depositors' funds. Additionally, the central bank is responsible for implementing monetary policy to achieve macroeconomic goals such as price stability, full employment, and economic growth.

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Buying on impulse is encouraged by supermarkets. Supermarkets are designed to encourage impulse buying by placing products strategically, such as at the end of aisles or near the checkout counter. They also use various marketing tactics, such as sales and discounts, to create a sense of urgency and encourage consumers to make impulsive purchases. Moreover, supermarkets are designed to be convenient and easy to navigate, so that consumers can quickly and easily find what they are looking for, as well as discover new products that they may not have intended to purchase. This convenience and ease of shopping can make it more tempting for consumers to make impulsive purchases, without fully considering their needs or budget. Therefore, supermarkets are a major contributor to impulse buying, and companies often use various strategies to take advantage of this behavior to increase sales.

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The practice of selling goods in foreign countries at lower prices than obtainable in the exporting country is known as dumping. Dumping occurs when a company exports its products to a foreign country at a price lower than the cost of production or lower than the domestic price. The intention is to gain a competitive advantage in the foreign market by driving out local competition or to dispose of excess inventory. This can be harmful to domestic producers and may lead to anti-dumping measures by the importing country. In summary, dumping is the practice of selling goods in foreign countries at a lower price than the domestic price or the cost of production. This can be harmful to domestic producers and may lead to anti-dumping measures by the importing country.

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Adding value to goods and services is a function of the marketing department in a firm. Marketing is the process of creating, promoting, and distributing products or services to meet the needs and wants of customers. The marketing department plays a crucial role in this process by identifying customer needs and preferences, developing products or services that meet those needs, and promoting them to potential customers. Adding value to goods and services is a critical function of the marketing department. This involves creating additional benefits or features that customers are willing to pay for, such as improved quality, better design, or better customer service. By adding value to goods and services, the marketing department helps to differentiate the firm's products or services from those of its competitors and increase customer satisfaction. In summary, adding value to goods and services is a key function of the marketing department in a firm. This involves creating additional benefits or features that customers are willing to pay for and helps to differentiate the firm's products or services from those of its competitors.

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(a) The term "exchange" in commerce

Exchange means the process of transferring goods and services from those who produce or own them to those who need them, usually with money acting as the medium. It is the buying and selling of goods and services, and it forms the very heart of commerce because it moves goods from the producer to the final consumer. Exchange may be by barter (goods for goods) or, more commonly today, through the use of money as a medium of exchange. It creates possession utility by placing goods in the hands of those who want them and are willing to pay for them.

(b) Impulse buying

Impulse buying is the unplanned purchase of goods, where a customer buys on the spur of the moment without having intended to do so before entering the shop. It is triggered by attractive display, packaging, advertising or a sudden desire, rather than by prior need or planning. For example, a shopper who goes to buy only bread but suddenly picks up chocolate placed near the counter is engaged in impulse buying.

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(a) Definition of a contract of sale

A contract of sale is a legally binding agreement in which the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the ownership (property) in goods to the buyer for a money consideration called the price. It is an agreement enforceable at law between a buyer and a seller for the exchange of goods for money.

(b) Six items that must be contained in a contract of sale

1. The parties: the names and addresses of the buyer and the seller.
2. Description of the goods: the nature, type, quality and quantity of the goods being sold.
3. The price: the amount of money to be paid and the currency.
4. Terms of payment: whether payment is by cash or credit, and details of any discount allowed.
5. Terms of delivery: the place, date and mode of delivery, and who bears carriage and insurance (for example F.O.B. or C.I.F.).
6. Passing of ownership and risk: the point at which title to, and risk in, the goods passes from seller to buyer.

Other items that may be included are the conditions and warranties, and the signatures of the parties or their agents.

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(a) What is branding?

Branding is the practice of giving a product a distinctive name, mark, symbol, sign or design (or a combination of these) that identifies the goods of one manufacturer and distinguishes them from those of competitors. Examples of brand names are Peak, Omo and Coca-Cola.

(b) Three advantages of branding

To the Manufacturer

• It distinguishes his product from rivals' goods and builds customer loyalty, leading to repeat sales.
• It aids advertising and sales promotion, since the brand name is easy to advertise and remember.
• It enables the manufacturer to fix and maintain his own price and to build a good reputation (goodwill).

To the Retailer

• Branded goods are easy to sell because they are already known and demanded by customers, reducing selling effort.
• They reduce the need to weigh, measure or grade, since they come pre-packed and standardised.
• Advertising of the brand by the manufacturer helps the retailer to sell more with less cost.

To the Consumer

• It makes it easy to identify and ask for a product of consistent, known quality.
• It guarantees uniform quality, so the consumer knows what to expect each time.
• It simplifies shopping and, through competition among brands, can help keep prices reasonable.

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(a) What is packaging?

Packaging is the act of wrapping, bottling, boxing or otherwise enclosing goods in suitable containers to protect them, preserve them, and make them attractive and convenient for handling, storage, transport and sale.

(b) Three disadvantages of packaging

• It increases the cost of production, and this higher cost is passed on to the consumer in the form of higher prices.
• Attractive packaging can be deceptive, misleading the consumer about the quantity or quality of the contents.
• Discarded packaging materials such as plastics and cartons cause environmental pollution and waste-disposal problems.

(c) Five reasons why manufacturers package products

• Protection: to protect the goods from damage, dirt, moisture and contamination during handling, storage and transport.
• Preservation: to keep the goods, especially foods and drinks, fresh and to extend their shelf life.
• Easy identification and branding: distinctive packages carrying the brand name help customers recognise and remember the product.
• Convenience: to make the goods easy to carry, measure, store and use, and to allow sale in convenient quantities.
• Sales promotion: attractive packaging appeals to customers and acts as a silent salesman, boosting sales and advertising the product.

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(a) What is a stock exchange market?

A stock exchange is an organised and regulated market where existing (second-hand) stocks, shares, bonds and other securities of public limited companies and government are bought and sold through licensed dealers (brokers and jobbers). The Nigerian Exchange is an example.

(b) Six functions of the stock exchange market

• Provides a ready market for securities: it enables holders of shares and stocks to sell them and buyers to acquire them easily, giving liquidity to investments.
• Mobilises capital for industry and government: it channels the public's savings into productive investment by making it easy for companies and government to raise long-term capital.
• Determines and publishes prices of securities: the forces of demand and supply on the exchange fix fair prices, which are quoted for the information of the public.
• Protects investors: it enforces strict rules on listed companies and dealers, ensuring honesty and that only sound securities are traded.
• Acts as an economic barometer: movements in share prices reflect the state of business and the economy, guiding investors and government.
• Encourages savings and investment: by offering a safe and profitable outlet, it encourages members of the public to save and invest.

Other functions include valuing securities for use as collateral and aiding the government's implementation of economic and privatisation policies.

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Explanation of the insurance concepts

(a) Non-indemnity insurance

This is a form of insurance in which the insurer does not merely restore the insured to his former financial position but pays an agreed fixed sum on the happening of the insured event. Because human life and limb cannot be valued in money, the principle of indemnity does not apply. Examples are life assurance and personal accident insurance, where a stated sum assured is paid.

(b) Group insurance

This is a single (master) policy taken to cover a number of persons who share a common feature, for example all the employees of one company or members of one association. It gives the members cover, often life or accident cover, at a lower premium than each would pay individually.

(c) Re-insurance

This is the practice whereby an insurer who has accepted a very large risk transfers part of that risk to another insurance company (the re-insurer). It enables the original insurer to spread the risk so that it is not ruined by a single heavy claim.

(d) Under-insurance

This occurs when the value at which property is insured is less than its true (actual) value. On the average principle, the insured then bears part of any loss himself, recovering only the proportion that the sum insured bears to the true value. For example, goods worth \(N100{,}000\) insured for \(N60{,}000\) will attract only 60% of any loss.

(e) Consequential loss insurance

Also called loss-of-profits or business-interruption insurance, this covers the loss of profit and continuing expenses (such as rent and salaries) that a business suffers as a result of an interruption of trade following an insured event like a fire, rather than the direct physical damage itself.

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Comparison of a public limited company with a partnership

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(a) Current assets

Current assets are assets that are held for a short period and can quickly and easily be converted into cash in the ordinary course of business, usually within one year. Their form keeps changing as the business trades.
Two examples: stock (goods for resale) and cash in hand; others are debtors and bank balances.

(b) Two uses of working capital

• To buy stock (goods) for resale.
• To pay day-to-day running expenses such as wages, rent and short-term creditors.

(c) Zig Stores computations

(i) Current liabilities

Creditors \(60{,}000\) + Bank overdraft \(10{,}000\)

\[= N70{,}000\]

(ii) Current assets

Stocks \(76{,}000\) + Debtors \(50{,}000\) + Cash in hand \(20{,}000\)

\[= N146{,}000\]

(Furniture and fittings \(30{,}000\) and Motor van \(164{,}000\) are fixed assets and are excluded.)

(iii) Working capital

\[\text{Working capital} = \text{Current assets} - \text{Current liabilities}\]\[= 146{,}000 - 70{,}000 = \mathbf{N76{,}000}\]

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(a) Five problems of the barter system of trading

• Lack of double coincidence of wants: each trader must find another who has what he wants and also wants what he has, which is difficult.
• Absence of a common measure of value: there is no standard unit for expressing and comparing the values of different goods.
• Indivisibility of some goods: some goods, such as a cow or a house, cannot be divided into smaller parts to match the value of what is wanted.
• Difficulty in storing wealth: many goods, especially perishables like yam or fish, cannot be stored to keep value for the future.
• Lack of a standard for deferred (future) payments: it is difficult to make and settle debts or credit transactions in goods.

(b) Five ways money has solved these problems

• Medium of exchange: money removes the need for double coincidence of wants; a seller collects money and uses it to buy whatever he needs from anyone.
• Measure of value (unit of account): money provides a common standard in which the value of all goods and services can be expressed and compared.
• Divisibility: money exists in small and large denominations, so goods of any value can be bought and change can be given.
• Store of value: money can be saved and kept without losing its value, allowing wealth to be held for future use.
• Standard of deferred payment: money makes credit transactions easy, since debts can be measured in money and repaid later.

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(a) Definition of a multiple shop

A multiple shop (chain store) is a group of two or more retail shops that are owned by the same person or organisation, sell the same class of standardised goods, and are managed under a common central control with uniform pricing and appearance. Examples include Kingsway and UAC chain stores.

(b) Three features of a multiple shop

• There is central ownership and central control from a head office.
• The branches sell the same standardised goods at the same fixed prices.
• Buying is done centrally in bulk, and the shops usually have a uniform layout, colour and name.

(c) Three advantages and three disadvantages

Advantages

• Economies of large-scale buying: central bulk purchasing earns trade discounts, so goods are bought and sold more cheaply.
• Common services save cost: advertising, transport, storage and administration are shared among all branches, reducing cost per shop.
• Wide market and spread of risk: having many branches brings the goods nearer to customers and a loss in one branch can be offset by profits in others.

Disadvantages

• Lack of flexibility: branch managers cannot easily vary prices or stock to suit local tastes because of rigid central control.
• Limited variety: each shop deals in only one class of goods, so customers cannot buy all their needs in one place.
• No credit and impersonal service: sales are usually strictly for cash and the personal relationship between customer and seller is weak.