WAEC SSCE - Government - 1998

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The presidential system of government allows the President to elect ministers from outside the Legislature. In this system, the President is separate from the legislature and is the head of the executive branch of government. The President is responsible for appointing ministers to assist in the administration of government. These ministers are usually experts in their respective fields and are not required to be members of the legislature. This is in contrast to a parliamentary system where the executive branch is made up of members of the legislature and the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority party or coalition in the legislature.

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The vote power in the United Nations Organization (UNO) is exercised by all members of the General Assembly and the five permanent members of the Security Council. The General Assembly is made up of all 193 member states of the UN, and each member has one vote in the Assembly. This means that every country, big or small, has an equal say in the decisions made by the UN. The Security Council, on the other hand, has 15 members, but only five of them are permanent members, known as the P5. These are the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom. The P5 have the power of veto, which means that if any one of them votes against a resolution, it cannot be passed, regardless of how many votes it receives from the other members. The staff of the General Secretariat and the members of the International Court of Justice do not have vote power in the UN. The Secretariat is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the UN, while the Court is the UN's principal judicial organ, settling legal disputes between states and giving advisory opinions on legal questions.

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Concurrent list in a federal constitution refers to a list of legislative powers that are shared by both the federal government and the state governments. This means that both levels of government have the power to make laws in these areas. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is "federal government and state government". The other options listed are not correct because they either refer to different levels of government or other institutions that do not have the legislative powers to make laws.

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The policy-making powers in a public corporation are vested in the Board of Directors. The Board of Directors is responsible for setting the overall direction and strategy of the corporation, and making major decisions on behalf of the organization. They are appointed by the government or shareholders and are expected to act in the best interest of the organization and its stakeholders. They oversee the work of the management team, including the Managing Director, and ensure that the corporation is achieving its goals and fulfilling its mandate.

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Nationalist movements started late in French West Africa because France suppressed political associations and parties. France, which colonized many countries in West Africa, particularly restricted political activities in the colonies to maintain control. France's colonial policy in West Africa was based on assimilation, which meant that French culture, language, and customs were imposed on the local population. The colonial administration saw political activities by the locals as a threat to their authority, so they took strict measures to suppress them. As a result, nationalist movements and political parties did not emerge in French West Africa until much later than in other African countries.

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In the traditional Yoruba political system, an Oba was the executive head of his people. This means that the Oba was the political leader and ruler of his kingdom or city-state. He held significant powers and responsibilities, including making decisions on matters of governance, administration, and justice. The Oba also served as the spiritual and cultural leader of his people and was regarded as a symbol of their identity and unity. Therefore, the option that best describes an Oba in the traditional Yoruba political system is "the executive head of his people."

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A single-member constituency is a type of electoral district or constituency in which only one representative is elected from that district to represent them in the legislative body. In other words, only one candidate can contest and win the election in a single-member constituency, unlike multi-member constituencies where two or more representatives can be elected from a single district. The purpose of single-member constituencies is to ensure that every district is represented by a single member of the legislative body.

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Political power is concerned with the allocation of resources and enforcement of decisions. It is the ability to influence or control the actions and decisions of individuals, groups, or institutions within a society. Political power is often exercised by those in government or those who hold influential positions in society, and it can be used to make decisions that impact the distribution of resources and the functioning of society as a whole.

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A constitution that requires a complex procedure for the amendment of its provisions is described as "rigid". This means that the process of amending the constitution is difficult and requires a special and often lengthy process. The idea behind a rigid constitution is to ensure that the basic principles and values of the constitution are protected from hasty and frivolous changes by the government or any other entity. In general, a rigid constitution is more difficult to change than a flexible one, which can be amended more easily and frequently.

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The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It was established in 1945 and has its headquarters in The Hague, Netherlands. The ICJ is responsible for settling legal disputes between states and for giving advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by the UN General Assembly or other UN organs. The Hague is a city in the western part of the Netherlands and is known for its international courts and tribunals.

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In a presidential system, the Legislature and the Executive are separate and independent branches of government, which means that they have checks and balances over each other to prevent abuse of power. One of the methods the Legislature can use to check the Executive is impeachment. Impeachment is a formal process of charging and removing a high-ranking public official, such as the President or Vice President, from office due to serious misconduct or violation of the law. The Legislature can also use oversight functions, such as investigative hearings, to hold the Executive accountable for its actions. Additionally, the Legislature has the power to pass laws, including the power of the purse, which can limit the Executive's authority and influence its decisions. Therefore, the correct option is (d) Impeachment.

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An Oba in the traditional Yoruba political system was the executive head of his people. In the Yoruba tradition, the Oba was seen as the highest authority figure and had the responsibility of maintaining law and order, resolving conflicts, and ensuring the well-being of his people. The Oba was also the custodian of culture and tradition, and often played a significant role in religious practices.

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In the 1922 Clifford Constitution of Nigeria, all the members of the Executive Council were British. This means that the highest decision-making body in Nigeria at that time was made up entirely of British officials. This was a reflection of the colonial rule of Nigeria by the British government, which had the ultimate authority over the country. The Governor, who was also British, had significant legislative power under this constitution.

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The 1953 motion for self-government in Nigeria was moved by Chief Anthony Enahoro.

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The Unification Decree that turned Nigeria into a Unitary State was promulgated during the regime of General Aguiyi Ironsi. Aguiyi Ironsi was a Nigerian military general who served as the Head of State of Nigeria from January 1966 until July 1966. During his regime, he abolished the federal system of government and replaced it with a unitary system of government, which was known as the Unification Decree. This decree centralized power in the hands of the federal government and abolished the regional governments that existed at the time.

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The non-permanent members of the Security Council of the United Nations Organization are appointed for a period of two years. This means that every two years, five new non-permanent members are elected to the Security Council by the General Assembly of the United Nations. The non-permanent members have the same voting rights as the permanent members of the Security Council, but they do not have the power of veto. The purpose of having non-permanent members is to ensure that different regions of the world are represented in the Security Council and to provide for greater representation and diversity in decision-making.

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The dominant actors in the Action Group crisis of 1962 were Obafemi Awolowo and Ladoke Akintola. The crisis emerged due to a power struggle between the two leaders, with Akintola attempting to challenge Awolowo's dominance within the party. The conflict ultimately resulted in the party splitting into two factions, with Awolowo leading one and Akintola leading the other. The crisis had significant political implications for the Western Region and the wider Nigerian political landscape.

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The most representative organ of the United Nations Organization is the General Assembly. This is because it consists of representatives from all member countries of the United Nations, making it the only UN body in which all member states have equal representation. The General Assembly deals with a wide range of issues including international peace and security, development, and human rights. Its decisions, although non-binding, carry significant political weight and can influence the policies and actions of member states.

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A feature of communism is common ownership of the means of production. In a communist system, the means of production (such as land, factories, and resources) are owned by the community as a whole, rather than by individuals or private entities. This means that the benefits and profits of production are shared equally among all members of the community, rather than being controlled by a small group of wealthy individuals. The goal of communism is to create a classless society in which there is no exploitation or inequality, and all members have equal access to resources and opportunities.

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A government shared by two authorities is called a "diarchy". This term refers to a system of government where power is shared equally between two individuals or authorities, usually involving two heads of state or two branches of government. It is important to note that a diarchy is different from a monarchy, where power is vested in a single individual or family. In a diarchy, the power and authority of the government is divided and shared equally, providing a balance of power between the two authorities.

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The Executive arm of government refers to a body which administers the law. In a democratic system, the Executive arm of government is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws passed by the Legislative arm. It is headed by the President or Prime Minister, who is responsible for making decisions on behalf of the country and its citizens. Other members of the Executive arm include Ministers and other government officials who are responsible for overseeing specific areas such as finance, health, education, and defense. Their role is to carry out the day-to-day operations of the government and ensure that the policies and programs of the government are implemented effectively for the benefit of the people.

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In a parliamentary system of government, a vote of no confidence is a mechanism by which the legislative body expresses its disapproval of the government's policies or actions. This is usually done by the legislature voting on a motion of no confidence, which if passed, can result in the resignation of the government or the calling of new elections. It is a means of holding the government accountable to the legislature and ensuring that it has the support of the majority of the members of the legislature.

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Indirect election refers to an election that is conducted through an electoral college. In an indirect election, voters do not directly elect their representatives. Instead, they vote for a group of people known as electors who then cast their votes on behalf of the voters to elect the representatives. The electors may be chosen by the voters or appointed by a higher authority. Indirect election is commonly used in presidential elections in countries like the United States and France.

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The traditional system of government in pre-colonial Nigeria was largely based on Communalism. Communalism is a system of government where the community owns and controls the resources and decisions are made through a collective process. In pre-colonial Nigeria, the traditional system of government was based on a communal way of life, where the village was the basic unit of government and decision-making. The people had a communal way of life where they shared resources, land, and responsibilities. The leaders were chosen based on their wisdom, experience, and contributions to the community. The traditional system was built on mutual trust, respect, and cooperation between the members of the community. The system ensured that everyone had a voice in decision-making, and the needs of the community were prioritized over individual needs. Therefore, communalism was the main system of government in pre-colonial Nigeria.

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The emirate system in the Hausa/Fulani traditional administration was hierarchical. This means that there was a clear ranking of power and authority within the system, with the emir at the top and other officials, such as village heads and district heads, below him. The emir had significant political and social influence, and his decisions were often final. The hierarchical nature of the emirate system helped to maintain order and stability within the Hausa/Fulani societies, as well as facilitate effective governance and administration of resources.

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Herbert Macaulay founded the first political party in Nigeria, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923. He was a nationalist and political activist who played a key role in the struggle for Nigerian independence. Macaulay's party provided a platform for Nigerians to demand for self-governance and greater representation in the colonial government.

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In a federal system of government, the legislature is usually bicameral, meaning it consists of two houses: the upper house (often called the senate) and the lower house (often called the house of representatives or the house of commons). The purpose of having two houses is to provide a system of checks and balances, as well as to ensure that both the central and state governments are represented in the legislative process. Each house has its own functions and responsibilities, and both houses must work together to pass legislation.

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The system of election described in the question is known as proportional representation. In this system, each political party is awarded a number of seats in the legislature that is proportional to the percentage of the popular vote that it received. For example, if a party receives 30% of the popular vote, it would be awarded approximately 30% of the seats in the legislature. This system is used in many countries around the world as a way to ensure that minority parties are still represented in government and to prevent one party from dominating the political system.

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In the Igbo traditional political system, the Okpara was the administrative head of his kindred. The Okpara is the eldest son of the extended family who was responsible for maintaining the family compound and managing its affairs. He acted as the family spokesperson, representing the family in community meetings and resolving disputes. The position was hereditary, and the Okpara held significant influence in the community as a respected leader. Therefore, option A is the correct answer.

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ECOWAS may be regarded as a regional organization. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is a regional intergovernmental organization made up of fifteen West African countries. It was established to promote economic cooperation among member states with the ultimate goal of achieving a single regional market. ECOWAS also aims to promote peace and security in the region, and has played a key role in resolving conflicts and maintaining stability in member states.

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Feudalism is a system of government where a few people (usually nobles or lords) monopolize the ownership of land. These few people hold power and control over the land and those who work on it, such as serfs or peasants. This system existed during medieval times in Europe and was characterized by a hierarchical social structure, with the king or queen at the top, followed by the nobles and then the peasants. The feudal system was based on a system of mutual obligations and loyalty, where the lord provided protection and resources to the peasants in exchange for their labor and loyalty.

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The reason why states form a federation is to cater for local differences. A federation is a system of government where power is shared between a central government and individual states. By doing so, each state can have some degree of autonomy and can make decisions based on their unique needs and circumstances. This allows for a more tailored approach to governance, rather than a one-size-fits-all approach that may not work for all regions of a country. Additionally, a federation can provide a mechanism for smaller states to have a greater say in national affairs and can help to prevent the concentration of power in a single location.

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During the First Republic in Nigeria, one major problem faced by political parties was that they were tribally based. This means that political parties were formed along ethnic lines, and this led to regionalism and limited national outlook. Political parties had a narrow focus, with each party mainly representing the interests of their respective ethnic groups. This limited the ability of the parties to work together for the good of the country as a whole, and often resulted in tension and conflicts among different ethnic groups.

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A system where at least two levels of government derive their powers from the constitution is called a federal system. In a federal system, power is shared between the central government and the state or regional governments. Each level of government has its own responsibilities and areas of authority that are defined by the constitution. Examples of countries with federal systems include the United States, Canada, Australia, and Germany.

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The neutrality of civil servants means that they should not take part in politics. They are expected to remain impartial and politically neutral in the discharge of their duties, regardless of their personal political beliefs or affiliations. This is to ensure that they provide effective and efficient services to the government and the public without any bias or prejudice towards any political party or individual. They are expected to serve the government of the day, irrespective of the political party in power and provide professional advice to the political leaders in order to help them make informed decisions.

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The country with an unwritten constitution is Britain. Unlike most countries, Britain does not have a single written document that serves as its constitution. Instead, its constitution is made up of various sources including Acts of Parliament, court judgments, and traditions. This is often referred to as an "unwritten constitution" as there is no one single written document that outlines the country's governing principles.

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The communist ideology was propounded by Karl Marx. He was a German philosopher, economist, historian, and revolutionary socialist who is best known for his works on communism and socialism. Marx is considered one of the most influential figures in the development of socialist and communist theory and is often referred to as the father of communism. He, along with Friedrich Engels, co-authored "The Communist Manifesto," which outlines the principles of communism and calls for the overthrow of capitalist systems in favor of a socialist society.

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One of the main features of the Republican Constitution adopted by Nigeria in 1963 was that the President became the Head of State. Prior to the adoption of the 1963 constitution, Nigeria was operating as a parliamentary system of government, and the Governor-General, who was appointed by the Queen of England, served as the ceremonial head of state. However, with the adoption of the Republican Constitution in 1963, Nigeria became a republic and the President became the Head of State with executive powers. The Prime Minister, on the other hand, became the Head of Government.

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Liberal democracy thrives best in a multi-party system. In a multi-party system, there are various political parties that compete with each other in free and fair elections. This provides citizens with a greater choice of candidates and policies, and allows for a more diverse representation of views in the government. This also ensures that no single political party dominates the political landscape, which prevents the concentration of power in the hands of a few individuals or groups. Therefore, a multi-party system provides the ideal environment for the functioning of a liberal democracy.

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The establishment of a public corporation is to undertake projects that require huge sums of money. A public corporation is a type of organization that is established by the government to carry out specific functions or provide essential services to the public. These functions or services usually require a significant amount of funding, which may not be readily available to individuals or private organizations. Therefore, the government establishes a public corporation to provide these services and ensure that they are available to the public. The primary purpose of a public corporation is to serve the public interest by providing essential services and undertaking projects that are of significant importance to the society as a whole.

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Universal adult suffrage means that all eligible adult citizens have the right to vote and be voted for in elections, regardless of their wealth, education level, gender, or status as a member of the legislature. This principle ensures that every individual has an equal opportunity to participate in the democratic process and have a say in the governance of their country. Therefore, "eligible adults are allowed to vote and be voted for" is the correct answer.

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Alhaji Waziri Ibrahim founded the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) in the Second Republic. The UPN was a political party in Nigeria that was active from 1978 to 1983, during the Second Nigerian Republic. It was one of the five parties to participate in the Nigerian presidential elections held in July 1979. The party's philosophy was based on the socialist principles of Chief Obafemi Awolowo.

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A recurrent problem of Nigerian federalism is national unity. Nigeria is a diverse country with over 250 ethnic groups, each with its own language and culture. This diversity has often led to conflicts and tensions among the various groups, especially between the major ethnic groups such as the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo. The struggle for power and resources has also been a major source of tension. These conflicts have often resulted in violence, such as the Biafran war in the late 1960s, and have made it difficult for the country to achieve national unity. The federal system of government, which grants significant powers to the states, has also been a source of tension, with some states feeling marginalized or disadvantaged in terms of resource allocation and representation at the federal level. The challenge of promoting national unity and addressing the concerns of all groups remains a major challenge for Nigerian federalism.

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A state is said to be unitary if it is organized under a single government. In a unitary system of government, power is concentrated in the central or national government, which has the authority to create and abolish local governments, and delegate powers to them. The central government makes laws that apply to the entire country and can overrule any decisions made by local governments. The local governments have limited powers and are subject to the control and direction of the central government. Examples of countries with a unitary system of government include France, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

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In local government elections, local government areas are generally divided into wards. A ward is a unit of local government that is smaller than a local government area or a district. It is usually a subdivision of a local government area and is often used for electoral purposes. Wards are typically made up of several smaller neighborhoods or communities, and each ward is represented by a councillor who is elected by the residents of the ward. The number of wards in a local government area varies depending on the population size and geographical area of the area.

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In a two-party system, only two major political parties have a chance of winning elections, which means that the choice of political associations is limited. This limits the options available to voters, who may not find a party that aligns with their political beliefs or values. As a result, voters may feel disenfranchised or apathetic towards the political process. Additionally, in a two-party system, smaller parties may struggle to gain traction and may not receive the same level of attention or resources as the two major parties, further limiting the choices available to voters.

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Multi-party system of government

A multi-party system is one in which three or more political parties are legally allowed to exist and compete for political power through elections.

Merits

1. Wider choice. Voters have a range of parties and programmes to choose from.
2. Effective opposition. Rival parties check the excesses of the ruling party and expose its shortcomings.
3. Wider representation. Different interests, regions, religions and ideologies find expression through the various parties.
4. Promotes democracy and freedom. Freedom of association and political competition are guaranteed.
5. Prevents dictatorship. Competition and the threat of losing power restrain the government from tyranny.
6. Encourages participation. Many parties mobilise more citizens into political activity.

Demerits

1. Political instability. It often produces weak coalition governments that collapse easily.
2. Deepens divisions. Parties may sharpen ethnic, religious and regional cleavages.
3. Expensive. Running many parties and frequent elections is costly to the state and the parties.
4. Weak, indecisive government. The need to satisfy coalition partners can delay and water down policies.
5. Confuses the electorate. Too many parties with similar programmes may bewilder voters.
6. Encourages bitter rivalry. Intense competition can lead to violence and electoral malpractice.

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How Nigeria has shown that Africa is the centre-piece of her foreign policy

1. Leadership in forming the OAU and AU. Nigeria was a founding and leading member of the Organisation of African Unity (now the African Union) and has consistently funded and supported it.
2. Founding of ECOWAS (1975). Nigeria spearheaded the creation of the Economic Community of West African States to promote regional integration and development.
3. Peacekeeping in Africa. Nigeria led and largely financed ECOMOG interventions in Liberia and Sierra Leone and contributed troops to missions in the Congo, Sudan, Chad and elsewhere.
4. Anti-colonial and anti-apartheid struggle. Nigeria gave money, arms and diplomatic support to liberation movements in Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa, and set up a Southern Africa Relief Fund.
5. Recognition of the MPLA in Angola. Nigeria influenced other African states to recognise the MPLA government, opposing external interference.
6. Technical and financial aid. Through the Technical Aid Corps, Nigeria sends professionals to other African and Caribbean countries and gives financial assistance.
7. Front-line diplomacy. Nigeria consistently champions African causes at the UN and other world bodies and mediates in African conflicts.
8. Concessions to neighbours. Nigeria has extended oil and financial concessions to needy African states.

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Defects of the Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 in Nigeria

The Lyttleton Constitution introduced a federal system for Nigeria, but it suffered from several weaknesses:

1. It entrenched regionalism. By strengthening the three Regions it deepened regional and ethnic loyalties at the expense of national unity.
2. The Lagos dispute. The separation of Lagos from the Western Region as federal territory caused resentment, especially among the Yoruba.
3. Weak centre, strong regions. The wide powers granted to the Regions weakened the central government and encouraged tendencies toward disintegration.
4. No national Prime Minister at the centre. There was no central Prime Minister to give national political leadership, unlike the Regions which had Premiers.
5. Non-uniform self-government. Allowing Regions to become self-governing at different times (East and West in 1957, North in 1959) created inequality and rivalry among them.
6. Minority fears not addressed. The constitution failed to protect minority groups within the large Regions, breeding agitation for separate states.
7. Divisive revenue allocation. Emphasis on the principle of derivation favoured richer Regions and bred inter-regional bitterness.
8. Non-uniform electoral arrangements. Voting and representation arrangements were not uniform across the country.

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(a) Sovereignty of a state

Sovereignty is the supreme, absolute and unlimited power of the state to make and enforce laws within its territory and to conduct its affairs free from external control. It has an internal aspect (supreme authority over all persons and associations inside the state) and an external aspect (independence from the control of any other state).

(b) Limitations of sovereignty in a state

1. International law and treaties. Obligations under treaties, conventions and membership of bodies such as the UN restrict how a state may act.
2. Public opinion. Government cannot ignore the wishes and reactions of the people without risking resistance or loss of power.
3. The constitution. A rigid, written or entrenched constitution limits what the government may lawfully do.
4. Fundamental human rights. Guaranteed rights and freedoms of citizens set boundaries the state may not cross.
5. Economic interdependence. Reliance on foreign aid, trade and investment forces states to accept external conditions.
6. Powerful pressure and interest groups. Trade unions, religious bodies and multinational corporations can compel government to modify its policies.
7. Federalism and separation of powers. The division of power among levels and organs of government limits the exercise of supreme authority.
8. Custom, tradition and morality. Established customs and the moral values of society restrain the state from making certain laws.

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Why the educated elites opposed the introduction of Indirect Rule in Southern Nigeria

1. It excluded them from government. Indirect Rule governed through traditional chiefs, leaving the Western-educated elites with no meaningful role in the administration.
2. It elevated illiterate chiefs above them. The educated felt insulted that unlettered chiefs were placed in authority over them.
3. Creation of artificial warrant chiefs. In the East and parts of the West, where centralised kingship did not exist, the British appointed unpopular warrant chiefs who lacked legitimacy.
4. It slowed constitutional progress. By strengthening traditional rulers, the system delayed the introduction of the representative institutions the elites wanted.
5. It ignored democratic traditions. The system did not fit the more egalitarian, republican political cultures of many southern communities.
6. Autocracy and abuse by chiefs. Chiefs backed by colonial power became oppressive, imposing taxes and forced labour, which the elites resented.
7. It contradicted their education. Having imbibed Western ideas of representative government, the elites saw Indirect Rule as backward and undemocratic.
8. It aimed to check nationalism. The elites believed the system was designed to divide and rule and to weaken their nationalist agitation.

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(a) Definition of nationalism

Nationalism is the strong feeling of love, loyalty and devotion to one's nation, expressed as the desire and organised struggle of a people to be free from foreign (colonial) rule and to govern themselves.

(b) Factors that aided the growth of nationalism in Nigeria

1. Western education. Educated Nigerians became aware of ideas of liberty, equality and self-government and provided leadership for the struggle.
2. The mass media. Newspapers such as the West African Pilot spread nationalist ideas and criticised colonial rule.
3. Influence of returnee ex-servicemen. Nigerian soldiers who fought in the Second World War returned enlightened and unwilling to accept colonial subjugation.
4. The Second World War and the Atlantic Charter. The Charter's principle of self-determination inspired colonial peoples to demand independence.
5. Formation of political parties and unions. Bodies such as the NNDP, NYM, NCNC and WASU organised and channelled nationalist agitation.
6. Economic exploitation. Resentment against colonial economic policies, taxation and racial discrimination fuelled the demand for change.
7. Influence of foreign nationalist movements. The Indian independence struggle and Pan-Africanism encouraged Nigerians.
8. Improved transport and communication. Roads, railways and postal services made it easier to organise and unite people across the country.
9. Racial discrimination. Unequal treatment of Africans in employment and public life bred a common grievance.

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Weaknesses of the military regime in Nigeria between 1966 and 1975

1. Suspension of the constitution and rule by decree. Governance by decrees issued without debate removed the checks of an elected legislature and encouraged arbitrary rule.
2. Absence of the rule of law. Ouster clauses barred the courts from questioning the acts of government, undermining the independence of the judiciary and citizens' rights.
3. Denial of fundamental rights. Political activity was banned, the press was muzzled and detention without trial was common.
4. Over-centralisation of power. Power was concentrated in the Supreme Military Council and the Head of State, fusing the executive and legislative functions.
5. Ethnic suspicion and disunity. The 1966 coups were seen as ethnically motivated, deepening distrust and contributing to the civil war of 1967 to 1970.
6. Corruption and indiscipline. The regime, especially in its later years, became notorious for bribery, inflated contracts and abuse of office.
7. Lack of popular participation and accountability. The government was neither elected by nor accountable to the people.
8. Instability and coups. The regimes came and were removed by force (1966 twice, and 1975), showing chronic political instability.

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Ways by which a citizen's rights can be safeguarded

1. Entrenchment in a written constitution. Listing fundamental rights in the constitution and protecting them with a rigid amendment procedure guarantees them against easy interference.
2. An independent judiciary. Impartial courts free from executive control interpret the law, hear complaints and enforce citizens' rights through remedies such as habeas corpus and injunctions.
3. The rule of law. Where everyone, including government, is subject to the same law and no one is punished except for a proven breach of law, rights are secure.
4. Separation of powers. Dividing power among the legislature, executive and judiciary prevents any one organ from concentrating power and abusing citizens.
5. A free press and mass media. A vigilant press exposes abuses of power and mobilises public opinion in defence of rights.
6. Existence of pressure groups and civil society. Trade unions, professional bodies and human-rights organisations campaign, litigate and protest to protect citizens.
7. Provision of an Ombudsman or Public Complaints Commission. A body to investigate complaints against maladministration gives an accessible avenue for redress.
8. Democratic elections and a multi-party system. Regular free elections allow citizens to remove governments that violate their rights.
9. An educated and enlightened citizenry. Citizens who know their rights are better able to demand and defend them.

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Basic functions performed by a modern government

1. Maintenance of law and order. Government makes laws and uses the police, courts and prisons to protect life and property and keep internal peace.
2. Defence and external security. It maintains the armed forces to protect the state's territory and sovereignty against external aggression.
3. Provision of social services. Government supplies education, health care, water, housing and welfare that citizens cannot easily provide for themselves.
4. Provision of infrastructure. It builds and maintains roads, bridges, electricity, communication and other public utilities that support economic activity.
5. Regulation of the economy. Through fiscal and monetary policy, taxation, budgeting and trade regulation, government manages the economy and promotes development.
6. Administration of justice. It establishes courts to settle disputes, interpret the law and punish offenders impartially.
7. Conduct of external relations. Government represents the state abroad, signs treaties, exchanges diplomats and pursues the national interest.
8. Protection of citizens' rights. It guarantees and safeguards the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the people.
9. Revenue generation. Government raises revenue through taxes, levies and duties to finance its activities.

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Reasons why delegated legislation is often criticised

Delegated (subsidiary) legislation is law made by persons or bodies to whom the legislature has transferred law-making power, for example ministers, local councils and public corporations. It is criticised for the following reasons:

1. It undermines the supremacy of the legislature. Law-making, which properly belongs to the elected parliament, is handed to unelected officials, weakening legislative authority.
2. It is undemocratic. Rules are made by civil servants and ministers who are not directly elected by, nor accountable to, the people.
3. Inadequate scrutiny. The volume and technical nature of the rules make it difficult for the legislature to examine and control them effectively.
4. Risk of abuse and dictatorship. Wide powers may be misused; officials may make oppressive rules, opening the door to arbitrary government.
5. It violates the separation of powers. The executive both makes and enforces these laws, blurring the line between law-making and law-executing functions.
6. Poor publicity. Many subsidiary rules are not widely published, so citizens may be bound by laws they never saw.
7. Technicality and complexity. The rules are often couched in complex, technical language that ordinary citizens cannot easily understand.
8. Sub-delegation. The delegate sometimes further transfers the power to yet another body, further removing the law from public control.