WAEC SSCE - Animal Husbandry - 2021

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The distention of the stomach in ruminants due to the accumulation of gas as a result of consumption of lush pasture is known as bloat. Ruminants, such as cows, sheep, and goats, have a four-chambered stomach that allows them to break down and ferment tough plant material. However, when they consume a large amount of lush, leguminous pasture, such as clover or alfalfa, the fermentation process can produce excess gas. This gas can become trapped in the rumen, causing it to expand and creating a condition known as bloat. Bloat can be dangerous for ruminants, as it can cause pressure on the diaphragm and lead to difficulty breathing. In severe cases, bloat can even lead to death. There are two types of bloat: frothy bloat and free-gas bloat. Frothy bloat occurs when foam forms in the rumen, trapping gas and preventing it from being expelled. Free-gas bloat occurs when a physical blockage prevents gas from leaving the rumen. To prevent bloat, ruminants should be slowly acclimated to lush pasture and should have access to hay or other dry forage. In severe cases, a veterinarian may need to intervene to relieve the bloat by inserting a tube through the animal's mouth and into the rumen to release the trapped gas. In summary, bloat is a condition that occurs in ruminants when excess gas accumulates in the rumen as a result of consuming lush pasture. It can be dangerous and even life-threatening, but can be prevented by slowly acclimating animals to new pasture and providing access to dry forage. Veterinary intervention may be necessary in severe cases.

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The first step in formulating a diet for cattle is to determine the nutrient requirements of the cattle. This involves understanding the specific nutritional needs of the cattle based on their age, weight, breed, and purpose (e.g. meat or milk production). Once the nutrient requirements are known, the next step is to choose the feed ingredients that will provide those required nutrients, and then determine the chemical composition of those feed ingredients. Finally, the amount of each feed to be used in the ration is calculated to ensure that the cattle receive the proper balance of nutrients for their health and productivity.

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The tube-like structure that carries air to the lungs of farm animals is called the trachea. It is a long, flexible tube that extends from the throat or pharynx down into the chest cavity, where it divides into two branches known as the bronchi. The trachea is sometimes referred to as the windpipe. When an animal breathes in, air travels through the nostrils or mouth and enters the trachea. The trachea is lined with tiny hairs called cilia, which help to filter out dust and other particles from the air. The trachea then divides into two bronchi, which carry air into the left and right lungs. In summary, the trachea is a tube-like structure that carries air to the lungs of farm animals. It is an essential part of the respiratory system, which is responsible for exchanging gases between the animal's body and the environment.

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The average gestation period for cattle is 282 days, which is approximately 9 months. During this time, the fetus develops inside the uterus of the cow until it is ready to be born. The gestation period can vary slightly depending on the breed and the individual cow, but 282 days is a good general estimate for the average gestation period of cattle. Knowing the gestation period is important for managing the reproductive cycle of cows and ensuring that calves are born at a time that is optimal for the herd and the farmer.

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A grass legume mixture for pasture production is used to improve the nutrient level of forage. This is because grasses and legumes have different nutritional compositions, and when mixed together, they can provide a more balanced and diverse diet for grazing animals. Grasses are typically higher in fiber and lower in protein, while legumes are higher in protein and lower in fiber. By combining these two types of plants, the resulting forage can provide a more optimal balance of protein, fiber, and other nutrients for livestock to consume. This can help to improve animal health and productivity, as well as overall pasture production.

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Hay and silage are both classified as roughages. Roughages are a type of feed that is high in fiber and low in energy and protein, and are typically fed to livestock, including cattle, horses, and sheep. Roughages are an important part of the diet for these animals, as they help maintain digestive health and prevent digestive problems such as colic. Hay is dried grass or legumes that have been cut and stored for later use as feed. Silage is a type of feed that is made by fermenting fresh forage, such as corn or grass, and then storing it in a silo or pit. Both hay and silage are considered roughages because they are high in fiber and low in energy and protein. Feeding roughages to livestock is an important aspect of their diet and overall health and wellbeing.

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Snail is usually classified as a non-traditional farm animal. This means that snails are not commonly raised or kept on farms for their meat, milk, or eggs like cattle, goats, and pigs are. Snails are more often kept as pets or for their use in certain culinary dishes.

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Out of the given options, the non-ruminant farm animal is rabbit. Non-ruminants are animals that do not possess a specialized stomach for fermentation of feed. Instead, they have a simple stomach. Rabbits belong to the category of non-ruminants as they have a simple stomach and are hindgut fermenters. In contrast, cattle, goats, and sheep are ruminant animals that possess a specialized stomach that aids in the fermentation of feed through the action of microorganisms.

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The secondary host of the parasite is the domestic fowl. An endoparasite is a parasite that lives inside the body of its host. In this illustration, the endoparasite is shown as a life cycle that involves two hosts. The primary host, which is not shown, is a livestock animal such as a pig or a cow. The secondary host is the domestic fowl. The parasite enters the primary host and develops into its adult form inside the host's body. When the primary host is consumed by the secondary host, the parasite is transferred to the secondary host, where it continues its life cycle. This is why the secondary host is the domestic fowl in this illustration. It is important to understand the life cycle of parasites to develop effective control and management strategies to reduce their impact on human and animal health.

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Inbreeding is a breeding practice that leads to reduced hybrid vigor. When individuals who are closely related are bred together, the offspring can inherit two copies of the same gene, which increases the likelihood of inheriting harmful genetic traits. This can lead to reduced genetic diversity, weaker immune systems, and other health problems. Outbreeding, crossbreeding, and line breeding all involve breeding individuals who are less closely related, which can increase genetic diversity and strengthen desirable traits. Therefore, inbreeding is the practice that would lead to reduced hybrid vigor.

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To determine the number of pigs that can be stocked in a pig sty, we need to calculate the total floor area of the sty and divide it by the required floor space per pig. The area of the pig sty can be calculated by multiplying its length by its width: Area of pig sty = Length x Width Area of pig sty = 14.0 m x 6.0 m Area of pig sty = 84.0 square meters Next, we need to determine the number of pigs that can be stocked in this area, given that each pig requires 2 square meters of floor space. We can do this by dividing the area of the sty by the required floor space per pig: Number of pigs = Area of pig sty / Required floor space per pig Number of pigs = 84.0 square meters / 2 square meters per pig Number of pigs = 42 Therefore, the number of pigs that could be stocked in a pig sty with dimensions of 14.0 m by 6.0 m is 42. It's important to note that this calculation assumes that all the available floor space is used for pigs and that there are no other structures or obstacles in the sty. Additionally, the welfare of the pigs must also be considered, and it's important to provide enough space for the pigs to move around and exhibit their natural behaviors.

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To determine the percentage conception rate, we need to divide the number of cows that conceived by the number of cows that were inseminated, and then multiply the result by 100 to get the percentage. In this case, 37 cows out of 50 were inseminated, so we can calculate the percentage conception rate as follows: Percentage Conception Rate = (Number of cows that conceived / Number of cows inseminated) x 100% Percentage Conception Rate = (37 / 50) x 100% Percentage Conception Rate = 0.74 x 100% Percentage Conception Rate = 74% Therefore, the percentage conception rate is 74%, which means that out of 50 cows that were inseminated, 37 conceived.

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Trypanosomiasis is caused by a parasite called Trypanosoma, and it is transmitted by the tse-tse fly. The tse-tse fly is a type of biting insect that is found in certain parts of Africa. When the fly bites a person or an animal, it can transmit the parasite into the bloodstream. From there, the parasite can multiply and spread throughout the body, causing trypanosomiasis. This is a serious disease that can lead to a range of symptoms, including fever, headache, joint and muscle pain, and fatigue. It is important to avoid being bitten by tse-tse flies in order to reduce the risk of getting trypanosomiasis.

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The meat of a calf that is less than six months old and fed exclusively on milk is called veal. Veal is a type of beef that comes from young calves, typically those that are less than six months old. The meat is tender, pale in color and has a delicate flavor. Veal is a popular ingredient in many European cuisine, but it is also enjoyed in other parts of the world.

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Hemoglobin is essential in the transport of oxygen process. Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that binds to oxygen molecules and carries them throughout the body. When you breathe in, oxygen enters your lungs and attaches to the hemoglobin in your red blood cells. The hemoglobin then carries the oxygen to your body's tissues and organs, where it is used to produce energy for your cells. Without hemoglobin, your body would not be able to transport enough oxygen to meet its energy needs. Therefore, hemoglobin is critical for the survival of all organisms that rely on oxygen for energy. In contrast, hemoglobin is not involved in the removal of nitrogen, regulation of blood pH, or absorption of water and salt.

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In ruminants, gastric juice is produced in the abomasum. The abomasum is the fourth chamber of the stomach in ruminants, and it is functionally similar to the stomach of monogastric animals. It is also known as the "true stomach" because it is the site of protein digestion, which is not efficiently digested in the rumen or reticulum. The abomasum secretes hydrochloric acid and proteolytic enzymes such as pepsin, which break down proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids. The other options listed (omasum, reticulum, and rumen) are not primarily involved in the production of gastric juice. They are involved in the fermentation and absorption of nutrients from plant material, which is characteristic of the digestive system of ruminants.

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The male hormone produced by farm animals is called testosterone. Testosterone is a hormone that is primarily produced in the testicles of male animals, including farm animals like cattle, sheep, and pigs. It is responsible for the development of male reproductive organs, as well as secondary sexual characteristics like increased muscle mass, deepening of the voice, and the growth of facial and body hair. Testosterone plays an important role in the reproductive and overall health of male farm animals. It is involved in the production of sperm and helps to maintain healthy bones and muscles. In addition to its role in male farm animals, testosterone also plays important roles in female animals, including the regulation of the menstrual cycle and the maintenance of bone density.

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Genetic defects in livestock can be caused by mutations. A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genes. This change can be caused by various factors, such as exposure to radiation or chemicals, errors during DNA replication, or other genetic processes. When a mutation occurs in a gene that controls the development or function of an important body part or system, it can result in a genetic defect. These defects can affect the health and well-being of the affected animal, and can be passed on to its offspring if the mutation is present in its germ cells (eggs or sperm).

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Iron injection is administered to piglets within the first week of farrowing to prevent them from being anaemic. Anaemia is a condition in which there is a deficiency of red blood cells or haemoglobin in the blood, which can lead to fatigue, weakness, and other health problems. Piglets are born with low iron levels, and their mother's milk does not provide enough iron to meet their needs. Therefore, they need a supplemental source of iron, which is usually provided through an injection. Iron injection helps piglets to develop a healthy immune system, grow properly, and prevent them from becoming weak and vulnerable to diseases. It does not harden them or prevent tail biting, and while it may contribute to their growth, this is not the main reason why it is administered.

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To prevent honey bees from being excited during the harvesting of honey, the use of smoke around the hives should be carried out. Smoke is often used by beekeepers to calm bees and reduce their aggression during honey harvesting. When bees sense smoke, they become less aggressive and focus their attention on storing honey in their stomachs in case they need to flee the hive due to a possible forest fire. The smoke also masks the pheromones that the bees use to communicate with one another, which further reduces their aggression. Therefore, based on the given options, the correct answer is the use of smoke around the hives.

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If a calf dies suddenly with blood oozing from the natural openings (such as mouth, nostrils, anus, and vulva), the most likely cause of death is anthrax. Anthrax is a serious bacterial infection caused by Bacillus anthracis that affects both animals and humans. It can be found in soil and can infect livestock when they eat contaminated grass or hay. The symptoms of anthrax can vary depending on the type of infection, but sudden death is a common occurrence. In many cases, blood may ooze from the natural openings of the animal's body. Other symptoms may include fever, difficulty breathing, and swelling of the body. While the other diseases listed can also cause illness and death in cattle, sudden death with blood oozing from the natural openings is most commonly associated with anthrax. It's important to consult a veterinarian if you suspect any illness or abnormal behavior in your livestock, as prompt diagnosis and treatment can be crucial for their health and well-being.

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Fertilizing the pasture would increase the carrying capacity of the land. This is because fertilization helps to improve soil fertility, which in turn promotes the growth of more grass and other plants that animals can eat. With more food available, more animals can graze on the land without causing overgrazing or depletion of the available resources. Draining the pasture may help in some cases by reducing waterlogged areas, but it is not a guaranteed way to increase carrying capacity. Pest and disease control is important to maintain the health of the animals and prevent losses, but it does not necessarily increase the carrying capacity of the land. Reducing the size of the pasture may temporarily increase carrying capacity, but it is not a sustainable solution as it can lead to overgrazing and soil depletion in the long run.

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The formation of the eggshell membrane occurs in the uterus. The uterus is the muscular organ where the fertilized egg implants and grows into a developing fetus. During the process of egg formation, the eggshell membrane is formed around the egg to protect it and provide a structure for the egg to develop within. This membrane is formed within the uterus and is a crucial component in the formation and development of the egg.

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The stage of the life cycle labelled II that enters the secondary host is called a sporocyst. The sporocyst is a sac-like structure that develops from the miracidium (the first-stage larva) in the intermediate host. Inside the sporocyst, asexual reproduction occurs, producing multiple rediae (the next stage of the parasite's development). The rediae then produce cercariae (the next stage), which are released from the intermediate host and can infect the final host (livestock in this case) by burrowing through the skin or by ingestion. The bladder worm is the larval stage of another type of parasite, while the miracidium and redia are earlier stages in the life cycle of the same parasite.

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The process by which digested nutrients enter the bloodstream through the intestinal walls of farm animals is known as absorption. It occurs in the small intestine, where nutrients from the digested food pass through the walls of the intestine and enter into the bloodstream, which carries them to the cells in the body that need them. The absorbed nutrients include sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, which provide energy and other essential nutrients for growth, maintenance, and repair of the animal's body. Overall, absorption is a critical step in the digestive process, allowing farm animals to obtain the necessary nutrients from their food to survive and thrive.

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Coccidiosis is a disease caused by the parasite Eimeria spp. It affects the intestines of birds, causing symptoms such as diarrhea, weight loss, and decreased appetite. The parasite spreads through contaminated feces, and birds can become infected by ingesting contaminated food or water. It is a common problem in poultry farms and can have a significant impact on the health and productivity of the birds.

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The practice of feeding a special diet to ewes before mating is called "flushing". Flushing is a method used in sheep farming to improve the reproductive performance of ewes. It involves feeding ewes a high-nutrient diet before mating in order to increase their body condition and help them produce more and healthier lambs. This special diet, which is typically high in energy, protein, and other essential nutrients, is designed to improve the ewes' overall health and increase their chances of successfully conceiving and carrying a lamb to term. By "flushing" the ewes with a high-quality diet, farmers aim to improve the health and fertility of the flock, leading to higher lambing rates and better overall production.

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Overstocking is a management practice that could decrease the production of herbage on a grazing land. This means that if there are too many animals grazing on a piece of land, they will consume more vegetation than the land can produce, leading to a decrease in the amount of available herbage. Overgrazing can also damage the soil and vegetation, making it harder for new plants to grow. On the other hand, practices such as irrigation, paddocking, and reseeding can increase the production of herbage on grazing land by providing the plants with the water and nutrients they need to grow, and by allowing the land to rest and recover between grazing periods.

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(a) Five ways of preventing malnutrition in farm animals

• Providing a balanced/adequate ration that supplies all needed nutrients.
• Supplementing feed with vitamins and minerals (e.g. mineral licks).
• Providing clean, adequate drinking water at all times.
• Avoiding overcrowding so that every animal has access to feed.
• Deworming animals regularly to reduce nutrient loss to parasites, and feeding according to age and physiological status.

(b) Rickets in farm animals

(i) Causes:

• Deficiency of vitamin D in the diet.
• Deficiency or imbalance of calcium and phosphorus in the ration.

(ii) Symptoms:

• Bent, bowed or deformed leg bones.
• Swollen joints, weak bones and stunted growth/lameness.

(iii) Control measures:

• Supply vitamin D and expose animals to sunlight.
• Provide adequate calcium and phosphorus in a balanced ration.

(iv) Animals which could be affected:

• Young growing poultry (chicks).
• Young pigs, calves, lambs and kids.

(c) Meaning of additive

An additive is a non-nutrient substance added to animal feed in very small quantities in order to improve the quality, palatability or keeping quality of the feed, promote growth or prevent disease.

(d) Five reasons why additives are included in animal feed

• To promote faster growth and improve feed efficiency.
• To prevent and control diseases (medication/coccidiostats).
• To improve the palatability of the feed.
• To supply extra vitamins and minerals.
• To preserve the feed and prevent spoilage/rancidity, and to improve product quality (e.g. yolk colour).

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(a) Terms used in the slaughtering of farm animals

• Scalding: dipping the slaughtered carcass or bird in hot water so as to loosen the feathers, hair or bristles for easy removal.
• Singeing: passing the carcass over or through a flame to burn off the remaining hair, feathers or bristles left on the skin.
• Evisceration: the removal of the internal organs (viscera such as the intestines, lungs and heart) from the slaughtered carcass.

(b) Four agents involved in the marketing of farm animals and animal products

• Wholesalers
• Retailers
• Middlemen/brokers (commission agents)
• Transporters/processors

(c) Five marketing functions that facilitate the sale of chicken and eggs

• Buying and selling.
• Transportation of the products to the market.
• Storage/preservation of the products.
• Grading and standardisation of eggs and birds.
• Packaging, and advertising/provision of market information.

(d) Three stages in the life cycle of a roundworm

• Egg
• Larva
• Adult worm

(e) Two methods of animal improvement

• Selection
• Breeding (cross-breeding/hybridisation), or introduction/artificial insemination.

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(a) Four ways in which livestock is important

• Source of food such as meat, milk and eggs.
• Source of income and foreign exchange to the farmer and nation.
• Source of raw materials for industry (hides, skin, wool, bone).
• Source of organic manure for crop production, and of draught (work) power.

(b)(i) Six organs of the digestive system in rabbits

• Mouth
• Oesophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Caecum (large in the rabbit)
• Large intestine (rectum/anus)

(b)(ii) Two functions of the alimentary canal

• Digestion of food into simple absorbable forms.
• Absorption of digested nutrients into the blood, and egestion of undigested material.

(c)(i) Four functions of the liver

• Secretes bile which emulsifies fat during digestion.
• Stores glycogen, vitamins and minerals (e.g. iron).
• Detoxifies harmful/poisonous substances in the body.
• Deaminates excess amino acids and destroys worn-out red blood cells.

(c)(ii) Two parasites found in the liver of cattle

• Liver fluke (Fasciola species).
• Hydatid cyst (larva of the tapeworm Echinococcus).

(d) Two differences between the digestive systems of a goat and a rabbit

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(a) Completed table on forage crops

(b) i. Definition of pasture

Pasture is an area of land covered with grasses and legumes (herbage) that is used for grazing or feeding livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats.

(b) ii. Four ways a grass-legume mixture is important in livestock production

• The legume component fixes atmospheric nitrogen through its root nodules, enriching the soil and improving the growth and yield of the companion grass.
• It supplies a balanced diet, since the grass provides energy (carbohydrate) while the legume supplies protein, giving the animal a more complete ration.
• It raises the total feeding value and palatability of the herbage, so animals eat more and gain weight or produce milk faster.
• The mixture gives a denser, all-year ground cover that protects the soil from erosion and suppresses weeds.

(c) Six characteristics of rangelands

• They are large expanses of natural, uncultivated land carrying native grasses, herbs and shrubs.
• The vegetation grows naturally and is not planted or managed by man.
• They occur mostly in semi-arid regions with low and unreliable rainfall.
• Animals feed by grazing and browsing directly on the natural herbage.
• They are generally of low carrying capacity, supporting few animals per unit area.
• The forage quantity and quality vary greatly with season, being lush in the wet season and scarce and dry in the dry season.

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(a) Six activities carried out in the brooding of chicks

• Providing artificial heat/warmth for the chicks with a heat source (charcoal pot, electric bulb or gas brooder).
• Supplying clean, cool drinking water in shallow drinkers.
• Providing feed (chick starter/mash) in clean feeders.
• Spreading clean, dry litter/bedding on the floor and replacing wet litter.
• Providing adequate lighting and ventilation in the brooder house.
• Vaccinating and medicating the chicks and guarding them against predators and rodents.

(b) Management practices

• Deworming: the administration of anthelmintic drugs to animals to remove or destroy internal parasites (worms) living in the digestive tract, so as to improve health and productivity.
• Culling: the removal (and disposal) of unproductive, sick, deformed or unwanted birds from the flock so that only healthy, productive birds are kept.
• Debeaking: the trimming of part of the upper (and sometimes lower) beak of birds to prevent cannibalism, feather pecking, egg eating and feed wastage.
• Delousing: the treatment of birds with insecticides/pesticides to destroy external parasites such as lice and mites.

(c) Four signs of ill health in poultry

• Dullness and reduced activity, with the bird often isolating itself from the flock.
• Loss of appetite and reduced feed and water intake.
• Ruffled or rough feathers and a drooping appearance.
• Sudden drop in egg production, and diarrhoea with a soiled vent.

(d) Two organs of the circulatory system of farm animals

• The heart.
• The blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries).

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(a)(i) Meaning of brooding

Brooding is the rearing and care of young chicks under artificial heat/warmth from day-old until about six to eight weeks of age, when they are able to regulate their own body temperature and no longer need extra heat.

(a)(ii) Four routine activities carried out in a brooder house

• Providing and regulating artificial heat for the chicks.
• Supplying clean feed and water.
• Cleaning the house and replacing wet/dirty litter.
• Vaccinating/medicating the chicks and removing dead or sick ones.

(b) Four effects of parasites in livestock production

• They reduce productivity (lower weight gain, milk and egg yield).
• They cause or transmit diseases.
• They cause anaemia through blood sucking and damage tissues/organs.
• They cause emaciation and may lead to the death of the animal.

(c) Four ways of controlling liver fluke in sheep production

• Drain marshy/waterlogged grazing land.
• Control the snail intermediate host using molluscicides.
• Drench the sheep with anthelmintics/flukicides.
• Practise rotational grazing and avoid grazing wet pasture in the early morning or late evening.

(d)(i) Definition of artificial insemination

Artificial insemination (A.I.) is the mechanical introduction of semen collected from a selected male into the reproductive tract of a female animal without natural mating.

(d)(ii) Four advantages of artificial insemination in cattle production

• It allows a single superior bull to serve many cows.
• It prevents the spread of breeding/venereal diseases.
• Semen can be stored and transported over long distances.
• It reduces the cost of keeping many bulls and overcomes size differences between animals.