WAEC SSCE - Government - 1988

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Rule adjudication is the main function of the Judiciary. The Judiciary is the branch of government that interprets and applies the law. It is responsible for settling disputes between individuals, organizations, and the government. The Judiciary ensures that the rule of law is upheld and that justice is administered fairly and impartially. Its main function is to provide a forum for the resolution of disputes, to interpret the law and to ensure that justice is served.

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Nuclear war is not an accepted way of resolving international conflict. Nuclear war is a catastrophic and destructive means of resolving conflicts between nations that leads to immense loss of human lives, destruction of infrastructure, and long-term environmental consequences. The use of nuclear weapons is considered a last resort and is prohibited by international law. The accepted ways of resolving international conflicts are diplomacy, non-military use of force, and war as a last resort. Diplomacy involves peaceful negotiations and discussions between nations to reach an agreement on contentious issues. Non-military use of force involves the use of economic sanctions or political pressure to influence the behavior of other nations. War, while not an ideal solution, may be necessary as a last resort when all other peaceful means have been exhausted. Propaganda, while often used in international relations, is not an accepted way of resolving international conflicts as it involves the dissemination of biased or misleading information to influence public opinion or sway the views of other nations. In summary, nuclear war is not an accepted way of resolving international conflict, and diplomacy, non-military use of force, and war as a last resort are the accepted means of resolving international conflicts.

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The first political party in Nigeria was the Nigeria National Democratic Party (NNDP). The NNDP was formed in 1923 by Herbert Macaulay, who is considered the founder of Nigerian nationalism. The party represented the interests of the educated elites in Lagos and other parts of the country. It was based on the principles of liberalism and aimed to promote democracy and self-government for Nigeria. The NNDP was the dominant political party in Nigeria in the 1950s, and it played a significant role in the country's struggle for independence from British colonial rule.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Government refers to an institution of the state that carries out the process of ruling a political community. It involves the exercise of power and authority to make decisions and implement policies that affect the citizens of the community. The government is responsible for maintaining law and order, protecting the rights and freedoms of its citizens, and promoting the general welfare of society. It consists of decision-makers, such as elected officials, bureaucrats, and judges, who work together to make laws and policies that shape the country's social, economic, and political landscape. Civil disobedience, on the other hand, is a form of protest that involves intentionally breaking a law or rule that is deemed unjust or unfair. It is an act of non-violent resistance that seeks to challenge the authority of the government and bring attention to a particular social or political issue. Therefore, civil disobedience is not part of the definition of government, as it refers to the opposition or defiance of the government's authority, rather than the exercise of power and authority by the government itself.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

A rigid constitution is said to be best suited for a federal government. A federal government is a system of government in which power is shared between a central authority and constituent political units such as states or provinces. A rigid constitution is one that is difficult to amend and requires a special procedure to be followed before any changes can be made to it. In a federal system of government, it is essential to have a rigid constitution to define the powers and responsibilities of the central and state governments. This helps to prevent any one level of government from becoming too powerful and also ensures that the federal system remains stable over time. In contrast, a unitary government, socialist government, military government, or fascist government may not require a rigid constitution as power is more centralized and may not need the same level of checks and balances to prevent abuse of power.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The function of the government is to manage and regulate the affairs of the state. While some functions of government may vary from country to country, some are generally agreed upon. These functions include building infrastructure like roads, bridges, canals, etc; providing education, maintaining relations with other states, defending the territory from external attack, and ensuring the welfare and security of its citizens. Therefore, providing all the material needs of all citizens is not a function of the government as it is practically impossible for any government to provide all the material needs of all citizens. While governments can provide some basic necessities like food, water, and shelter, citizens are responsible for their own personal material needs. Hence, "provision of all the material needs of all citizens" is not a function of the government.

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The highest court of appeal under the Republican Constitution of Nigeria was the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court was established in 1963 under the Republican Constitution of Nigeria and it serves as the final court of appeal in the country's judicial system. The Supreme Court has the power to interpret the Constitution and to decide cases that are appealed from lower courts. Its decisions are final and binding on all other courts in the country. The court is made up of a Chief Justice and a number of justices, who are appointed by the President of Nigeria on the recommendation of the National Judicial Council and with the approval of the Senate. The Supreme Court of Nigeria is an important institution in the country's democracy, as it plays a key role in ensuring that the rule of law is upheld and that justice is served. Its decisions have the power to shape the legal landscape of the country and to impact the lives of Nigerian citizens.

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Another word for red-tapism is bureaucracy. Bureaucracy refers to a system of government or organization that is characterized by a hierarchical structure, a set of rules and regulations, and a lot of paperwork. Red-tapism, on the other hand, refers to excessive bureaucracy or the over-regulation of processes, resulting in delays, inefficiencies, and frustration. Red-tapism is often associated with a lack of flexibility, innovation, and customer service. It can be found in government agencies, large corporations, and other organizations that have complex structures and procedures. While democracy, autocracy, idiosyncrasy, and theocracy are all different forms of government, they are not synonyms for red-tapism.

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The system of government that requires ownership and control of the means of production for the benefit of the population is socialism. Under socialism, the means of production, such as factories, land, and resources, are owned and controlled by the state or by the people collectively. This is done in order to ensure that the wealth generated from these resources is distributed fairly and equitably among the population, rather than being concentrated in the hands of a few individuals or corporations. In a socialist system, the state may also provide various social services, such as healthcare and education, to ensure that everyone has access to basic needs.

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The headquarters of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is located in New York City, USA. The UNO was established in 1945 after the end of World War II as an international organization dedicated to promoting peace, security, and cooperation among its member states. The UNO headquarters is situated on a complex of buildings in Manhattan, known as the United Nations Headquarters complex, which includes the iconic 39-floor Secretariat building, the General Assembly building, and several other structures. The complex sits on 18 acres of land overlooking the East River and is considered international territory, with its own police force and postal service. The UNO headquarters serves as a hub for the organization's activities and houses its administrative offices, as well as conference rooms and meeting spaces for its various bodies and committees. It is also a symbol of the world's collective efforts to maintain international peace and security and to promote social progress and human rights.

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The psychological support a regime gets from its citizens if they believe the regime is right and ought to be obeyed is known as legitimacy. Legitimacy refers to the degree to which a government is accepted by its citizens as having the right to exercise political power. When citizens believe that the government has the legitimate right to rule, they are more likely to obey laws and cooperate with government policies. Legitimacy can be based on a number of factors, such as historical tradition, legal authority, and popular consent. A government that lacks legitimacy may face challenges to its authority, including protests, civil unrest, and even rebellion.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The political concept that is composed of the attitudes, beliefs, emotions, and values of a society is called political culture. This refers to the shared set of ideas and values that shape the behavior and actions of individuals and groups within a political system. Political culture encompasses a wide range of beliefs and attitudes, including those related to democracy, individual rights, political participation, and the role of government in society. Political culture is shaped by a variety of factors, including historical experiences, social and economic conditions, and cultural traditions. It is also influenced by the actions of political leaders and institutions, as well as by the media and other forms of communication. Understanding a society's political culture is important for understanding its political behavior and decision-making processes. It can also help to explain why some policies and practices are more or less accepted in different societies. By examining the political culture of a society, political scientists and policymakers can gain insights into the underlying values and beliefs that shape political behavior and attitudes.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

The act of governing refers to the activities by which government policies are made and implemented. It involves the exercise of political authority to manage and regulate the affairs of a community or society, including decision-making, policy formulation, and policy implementation. The act of governing is carried out by the executive branch of government, which is responsible for administering the policies and laws passed by the legislature and interpreted by the judiciary. It is an essential function of government that ensures the maintenance of law and order, the provision of public services, and the protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Lateef Jakande was not a frontline fighter for Nigeria's independence. Explanation: Lateef Jakande was a prominent politician and journalist in Nigeria, but he was not actively involved in the struggle for Nigeria's independence. The other options listed - Obafemi Awolowo, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Aminu Kano, and Herbert Macaulay - were all notable leaders and activists who played significant roles in the fight for independence from British colonial rule.

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The function of a party secretariat is to manage the day-to-day operations of the party and to support the party leadership in achieving the party's objectives. This includes organizing party conferences, planning party strategy to win elections, and handling publicity for the party. The party secretariat is also responsible for publishing the party's manifesto, which outlines the party's policies and programs. However, the election of the party leader is not a function of the party secretariat. The party leader is usually elected by the party members through a democratic process such as a party convention or primary election. Therefore, "Electing the leader of the party" is not a function of a party secretariat.

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The state and the government are different because the state is permanent while the government is temporary. The government is made up of elected or appointed officials who are in power for a limited time, while the state refers to the political entity that governs a specific geographical territory and its people. Additionally, the state is not created by God but is established by people, and while the government has power, it is not absolute, as it is limited by the law and constitution of the state.

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The French policy of Assimilation was an approach to colonialism that aimed at turning the colonies into extensions of France. It was based on the idea of "French civilization" being superior and the belief that Africans could be assimilated into French culture. The policy focused on education, with the goal of producing a class of Africans who would adopt French language, customs, and values, and see themselves as French. The ultimate aim was to turn African colonies into French départements, with full political and social integration into the French Republic. Unlike the British policy of Indirect Rule, the French policy of Assimilation sought to directly rule over the colonies. The policy was controversial and met with resistance, particularly in North and West Africa, but it did produce a small number of educated African elites who later played significant roles in African nationalism and independence movements.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Military governors were members of the Supreme Military Council under the Yakubu Gowon Regime. The Supreme Military Council was the highest decision-making body of the military government in Nigeria during the Gowon regime. The military governors were appointed to head the various states created by the government as part of its efforts to restructure the country into a federation. The military governors were responsible for the day-to-day administration of their states, but they had to report to the Supreme Military Council on major policy issues.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC) came into existence during the Babangida Administration in Nigeria. The AFRC was a military junta that took control of the country after the overthrow of the civilian government in a coup. The council was made up of military officers who were appointed by the head of state, and they ruled the country by decree. The AFRC lasted from 1985 to 1993 and oversaw the transition from military rule to civilian rule in Nigeria.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The membership of a state in Nigeria is made up of the state governor and other government officials appointed or elected to serve in the state government. This includes state commissioners, who are appointed to head various ministries, and other state officials who are responsible for carrying out the day-to-day functions of the state government. In addition to these government officials, the membership of a state in Nigeria also includes traditional chiefs and leaders who have an important role in local governance and decision-making. Traditional chiefs are appointed or elected by the local communities and are responsible for maintaining social order, resolving disputes, and representing the interests of their communities to the state government. Overall, the membership of a state in Nigeria is made up of a combination of elected and appointed officials, as well as traditional leaders, who work together to govern the state and serve the interests of its people.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Nigeria became a federation of 19 states in 1976. This occurred during the military regime of General Murtala Mohammed, who initiated the creation of additional states to improve administrative efficiency and foster development across different regions. The new states were part of an effort to address regional disparities and enhance governance.

This reorganization increased the number of states from 12 to 19.

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It is not the duty of a government to provide all the needs of its citizens. While governments have a responsibility to ensure the welfare and security of their citizens, it is not feasible for any government to provide all the needs of its citizens. Providing for all the needs of citizens would require unlimited resources and would not be sustainable in the long term. The duties of a government include preventing internal disorder, ensuring the security of life and property, providing basic welfare services, promoting industrial and commercial development, and creating a stable economic environment. These duties are essential to maintaining a functioning society and improving the standard of living of its citizens. Preventing internal disorder is important for maintaining law and order within a society, and ensuring the security of life and property is important for protecting the rights and safety of citizens. Providing basic welfare services such as education, healthcare, and social assistance programs helps to address the basic needs of citizens and promote social equality. Promoting industrial and commercial development and creating a stable economic environment helps to create job opportunities, increase productivity, and improve the standard of living of citizens. In summary, it is not the duty of a government to provide all the needs of its citizens, but it is responsible for ensuring internal order, security, basic welfare services, and promoting economic development.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Private enterprise is not relevant to communism. Communism is a political and economic system based on the idea of collective ownership of property and the means of production. In a communist society, the government or the community as a whole owns and controls all property and resources, and the distribution of goods and services is based on the principle of "from each according to their ability, to each according to their needs." Democracy is not incompatible with communism, but in practice, communist regimes have often been characterized by authoritarianism and the suppression of political dissent. Violent revolution, class war, and Friedrich Engels are all closely associated with communism, as they reflect the Marxist theory of historical materialism and the struggle between the proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie (wealthy capitalist class) for control of the means of production. Private enterprise, however, is seen as a capitalist concept that is antithetical to the collective ownership and control that is central to communism.

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The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is an economic association of fifteen countries located in West Africa. The organization was created to promote economic cooperation and integration among its member states. ECOWAS was established in 1975 with the signing of the Treaty of Lagos by fifteen West African countries. The organization's main objective is to promote economic growth and development in the region by creating a common market and removing trade barriers among member states. In addition to promoting economic integration, ECOWAS also works to promote political stability and security in the region. The organization has been involved in several peacekeeping missions in West Africa, including in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Cote d'Ivoire. ECOWAS has also established a number of institutions to support its work, including the ECOWAS Commission, the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development, and the West African Health Organization. These institutions work together to support economic growth and development in the region. Overall, the Economic Community of West African States is an important regional organization that plays a vital role in promoting economic integration, political stability, and social development in West Africa.

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The concept that is out of place among the options given is welfarism. Fascism, totalitarianism, authoritarianism, and dictatorship are all political ideologies that involve centralized and often oppressive government control. Fascism is a far-right ideology that seeks to unify a nation under a single authoritarian government, often through the use of force. Totalitarianism is a system of government that seeks complete control over all aspects of society, often through propaganda, censorship, and surveillance. Authoritarianism is a form of government that places a strong emphasis on obedience and discipline, often through the use of force. Dictatorship is a form of government where a single leader holds complete power. In contrast, welfarism is not a political ideology, but rather an approach to government that emphasizes the well-being of citizens and seeks to provide them with social welfare services and benefits. While welfarism can exist within different types of government, including democratic and socialist systems, it is not a distinct political ideology like fascism, totalitarianism, authoritarianism, or dictatorship.

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The country that has an unwritten constitution is Great Britain. The UK's constitution is not contained in a single written document, but rather is made up of various sources, including statutes, judicial decisions, and conventions. The UK's constitution is known as an unwritten constitution because it does not exist in a single document, like the United States Constitution or the French Constitution. Instead, it is made up of a collection of legal documents, court decisions, and conventions that have evolved over time. Some of the key elements of the UK's unwritten constitution include the Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights, and the Parliament Acts. These documents, along with other legal decisions and conventions, set out the structure and functions of the government, including the roles of the monarch, the Prime Minister, and Parliament. Despite not having a single written document, the UK's constitution is still considered to be a strong and effective system of government that has stood the test of time.

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In the process of governing, OUTPUT refers to the decisions and actions taken by the government in response to the demands of the political system, the opinion of the electorate, and the influence of pressure groups and political parties. In other words, the output is the end result of the government's decision-making process, which may include the implementation of policies, laws, and regulations aimed at addressing the needs and concerns of the population. It is the tangible outcome of the government's efforts to serve the public and improve the well-being of society as a whole. The output can be measured in terms of the effectiveness of the policies and programs implemented by the government, as well as the overall satisfaction of the population with the services and benefits provided by the government.

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The popular form of proportional representation is the single transferable vote. In this system, voters rank candidates in order of preference, and seats are allocated based on the total number of votes received by each candidate. The system ensures that every vote counts and reduces the risk of wasted votes. It also promotes diversity and representation of minority groups in the government. However, it can be complicated and may require voters to have a good understanding of the candidates and their policies. Additionally, the counting process can be time-consuming, which may delay the announcement of election results.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Federal elections were held in Nigeria in 1954, 1959, 1964, 1979, and 1983. Nigeria gained its independence from British colonial rule on October 1, 1960, and the first federal elections were held in 1954, when Nigeria was still a British colony. The elections were held to elect members of the Legislative Council, which was the precursor to the Nigerian Parliament. After gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria continued to hold federal elections at intervals. The 1959 federal elections were the first held after Nigeria gained independence, and they were held to elect members of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The 1964 federal elections were held to elect members of the House of Representatives and the Senate, as well as state governors and state legislators. The 1979 federal elections were the first to be held after a period of military rule in Nigeria, and they were held to elect a President and members of the National Assembly. The 1983 federal elections were held to elect a President and members of the National Assembly, as well as state governors and state legislators. In summary, federal elections were held in Nigeria in 1954, 1959, 1964, 1979, and 1983, at various intervals before and after Nigeria gained independence from British colonial rule.

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The primary purpose of the state is to establish a system of law and order. This means that the state is responsible for maintaining peace, security, and stability within its borders. The state achieves this by creating laws that regulate behavior, punishing those who break the law, and ensuring that everyone is protected from harm. A stable and peaceful environment is essential for economic growth and development, and it also enables people to enjoy their rights and freedoms. While the state may provide other services, such as education and healthcare, the primary responsibility of the state is to ensure law and order.

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Nigeria sent peacekeeping forces to several countries, but the question asks for only one of them. Therefore, the answer is: Nigeria sent peacekeeping forces to Chad. Chad is a neighboring country to Nigeria and the peacekeeping mission was in response to the Chadian-Libyan conflict in the 1980s. Nigeria led the multinational force that included troops from other African countries such as Senegal, Sudan, and Egypt. The mission was to prevent the conflict from spilling over to other countries in the region and to ensure stability in Chad. The peacekeeping mission was considered a success, and Nigeria received praise for its leadership and contribution to peacekeeping efforts in Africa.

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A flexible constitution can only be amended by a simple majority vote in the legislature. In a flexible constitution, the procedures for amending the constitution are relatively easy and can be changed through a simple legislative process. This is in contrast to a rigid constitution, where the procedures for amending the constitution are much more difficult and require a special amendment process or even a constitutional convention. As a result, a flexible constitution can be easily adapted to changing circumstances, while a rigid constitution provides greater stability and security, but can be more difficult to change when necessary.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The purpose of enumerating the powers of the central government in a federation is to limit its powers against those of the units. This means that the central government is granted only certain specified powers, while the units retain all other powers not specifically granted to the central government. This serves as a check on the central government's power and helps to ensure that the units maintain a degree of autonomy and independence. By limiting the central government's powers, the constitution seeks to prevent it from becoming too dominant or oppressive over the units, thereby promoting a balanced and equitable distribution of power.

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The two components of sovereignty are political independence and the supreme authority of the state within its territory. Political independence means that a state has the right to govern itself without external interference from other states. This includes the right to make its own laws, establish its own government, and conduct its own affairs without interference from other countries. The supreme authority of the state within its territory means that the state has the power to make and enforce laws within its own borders. This includes the power to maintain order and security, collect taxes, and provide services to its citizens. Together, political independence and the supreme authority of the state within its territory are the two components of sovereignty, which is the principle that a state has full and exclusive control over its own affairs without interference from external actors.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The General Assembly is not a specialized agency of the United Nations Organization. The United Nations (UN) is made up of various bodies, including specialized agencies that focus on specific issues. These specialized agencies are autonomous organizations that work with the UN to achieve its goals. The World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) are all specialized agencies of the UN. However, the General Assembly is a principal organ of the UN, which is made up of all member states and serves as a forum for member states to discuss and coordinate on international issues.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A state is a special form of human association because it has a government, which is a central authority that exercises control over its citizens and territory. This government has the power to make and enforce laws, maintain order, protect the rights of citizens, and provide essential services. The state also has a monopoly on the use of force and can use it to punish lawbreakers. The legitimacy of the state comes from its ability to provide stability, security, and protection to its citizens, and its authority is recognized and accepted by the people. The existence of a constitution approved by the citizens is important, but it is not the only defining characteristic of a state.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

In the Oyo traditional political system, the Alaafin of Oyo was chosen by a group known as the Oyomesi. The Oyomesi was a council of seven powerful chiefs in the Oyo Empire who had the authority to check the power of the Alaafin. They were responsible for ensuring that the Alaafin did not abuse his power or act against the interests of the people. The Oyomesi also had the power to remove the Alaafin if he was found guilty of any wrongdoing or if he was deemed unfit to rule.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

A flexible constitution is advantageous because it can cope with changing circumstances and can be easily amended to adapt to new situations. This means that the constitution can be modified in response to social, political or economic changes, without the need for a major overhaul of the entire document. This helps to prevent the passing of hasty bills by the legislature, as the constitution can be adjusted to meet the changing needs of society. It also allows for continuity, as it ensures that the constitution remains relevant and up-to-date. Additionally, during times of emergency, the flexible constitution allows for quick decision-making to address the situation.

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The voluntary activities of members of a society in the selection of rulers is known as political participation. It refers to the involvement of individuals or groups in the political process, including activities such as voting, attending political rallies, donating money to political campaigns, and running for political office. Political participation is an important aspect of a democratic society, as it allows citizens to have a say in how they are governed and ensures that their voices are heard. By participating in the political process, individuals can help to shape policies and decisions that affect their lives and communities.

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The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was founded in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in May 1963. It was later transformed into the African Union in 2002.

Aims of the OAU.

1. To promote the unity and solidarity of African states.
2. To coordinate and intensify cooperation among African states in order to raise the standard of living of their peoples.
3. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member states.
4. To eradicate all forms of colonialism and apartheid from the African continent.
5. To promote international cooperation with due regard to the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
6. To settle disputes among member states peacefully through negotiation, mediation and arbitration.

Some achievements of the OAU.

1. Decolonisation and the fight against apartheid: Through its Liberation Committee it gave moral, material and diplomatic support to liberation movements, contributing to the independence of many African states and to the eventual fall of apartheid in South Africa.
2. Peaceful settlement of disputes: It mediated in several inter-state and boundary conflicts, such as the Algeria-Morocco and Somalia-Ethiopia border disputes.
3. Promotion of African unity and a common voice: It gave Africa a united platform to press its interests at the United Nations and other international bodies.
4. Economic and cultural cooperation: It encouraged the formation of regional economic groupings, such as ECOWAS, and the Lagos Plan of Action for economic development.
5. Refugee and humanitarian assistance: It helped to address the problems of refugees and displaced persons on the continent.
6. Preservation of colonial boundaries: It secured agreement to respect the boundaries inherited at independence, thereby averting many territorial wars.

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The legislature is the arm of government responsible for making laws. In a modern state it performs the following functions.

1. Law-making: Its primary function is to enact new laws and to amend or repeal existing ones for the good governance of the state.
2. Control of public finance: It examines and approves the annual budget, authorises taxation and public expenditure, and no money may be spent by the executive without its approval.
3. Control over the executive: It checks and oversees the executive through questions, motions, debates, votes of no confidence and, in the presidential system, confirmation of appointments, thereby ensuring accountability.
4. Amendment of the constitution: It initiates and passes amendments to the constitution in accordance with the laid-down procedure.
5. Investigative or oversight function: Through its committees it conducts investigations into matters of public interest and supervises the activities of ministries and agencies.
6. Judicial functions: It may exercise quasi-judicial powers such as the impeachment and removal of the president or governor, and it can punish for contempt of the house.
7. Representative function: Members represent their constituents, articulate their grievances and interests, and keep them informed of government policy.
8. Electoral and confirmation functions: In some systems it ratifies treaties, confirms senior appointments, and may participate in electing or approving certain officers of state.
9. Educative and deliberative function: Through open debates it enlightens the public on national issues and serves as a forum for ventilating public opinion.

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Meaning. Proportional representation (PR) is an electoral system in which the number of seats a political party wins in the legislature is roughly equal to the proportion of the total votes it receives. If a party polls, for example, thirty per cent of the votes, it is allotted about thirty per cent of the seats. It is designed so that seats reflect popular support as closely as possible, and it is usually operated through multi-member constituencies using the party-list or single-transferable-vote methods.

Merits.

1. It ensures a fair and accurate reflection of the wishes of the electorate, since seats match votes.
2. It gives representation to minority parties and minority groups who would win nothing under the simple-majority system.
3. It reduces wasted votes, because almost every vote counts towards a seat.
4. It encourages the formation of many parties, widening the range of choice available to voters.
5. It promotes national unity and consensus by compelling parties to cooperate and form coalition governments.

Demerits.

1. It tends to produce weak and unstable coalition governments made up of several parties.
2. The method of allocating seats is complicated and difficult for ordinary voters to understand.
3. The close link between a representative and a particular constituency is weakened, especially under the party-list system.
4. Party leaders gain excessive power because they decide the order of candidates on the party list.
5. The multiplication of small parties can make governance unwieldy and encourage extremist groups to gain seats.

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Reasons for the introduction of Indirect Rule. Indirect Rule was the system by which the British governed their colonies through existing traditional rulers and institutions. It was popularised in Northern Nigeria by Lord Lugard. It was introduced for the following reasons.

1. Shortage of British personnel: There were too few British officials to administer so vast a territory directly, so existing rulers were used as intermediaries.
2. Financial economy: The colony was expected to pay for itself; ruling through traditional rulers who were already maintained by the people was far cheaper than a large European bureaucracy.
3. The language barrier: British officials did not understand the many local languages, so native authorities were needed to bridge communication with the people.
4. Existence of well-organised political systems in the North: The Hausa/Fulani emirates already had a centralised administration with emirs, an established tax system and Islamic courts, which the British found convenient to work through.
5. To preserve peace and reduce resistance: Ruling through familiar and respected authorities was less likely to provoke revolt than direct European control.

Reasons for its failure in some parts of the country. The system worked reasonably well in the North but failed, especially in the Eastern Region, for the following reasons.

1. Absence of centralised authority in Igboland: Igbo society was segmentary and republican, governed by councils of elders, age-grades and family heads, with no kings or chiefs of the emirate type through whom the British could rule.
2. Imposition of warrant chiefs: Since there were no natural rulers, the British appointed "warrant chiefs" who had no traditional legitimacy; they abused their powers and were resented by the people.
3. Popular resentment and resistance: Interference with the position of women and taxation fears provoked opposition, most notably the Aba Women's Riot (Women's War) of 1929.
4. Corruption and unpopularity of the warrant chiefs: Their bribery and oppression discredited the whole system in the East.
5. Effect of Western education in the South: The educated elite in the South rejected rule through illiterate and unaccountable chiefs and demanded genuine representation.

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Meaning of a state. A state is a politically organised body of people occupying a definite territory, possessing an organised government, and enjoying both internal and external sovereignty. It is the highest form of human political association, to which every other association within the territory is subordinate.

Characteristics (essential elements) of a state. For any body to qualify as a state, it must possess the following features.

1. Population: There must be a body of people living together permanently within the territory. Without people there can be no state, though there is no fixed size for the population.
2. Territory: A state must occupy a definite and recognised geographical area, including its land, inland waters, territorial waters and air space, with clearly marked boundaries.
3. Government: There must be an organised machinery of government (the executive, legislature and judiciary) through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and enforced, and law and order maintained.
4. Sovereignty: The state must possess supreme power, both internal and external. Internally it is supreme over all persons and associations within its territory; externally it is free from the control of any other state.
5. Permanence: A state is a permanent and continuing institution. Although governments may change, the state itself continues in existence.

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(a) Major differences between the civil service and the public service.

In short, every civil servant is a public servant, but not every public servant is a civil servant.

(b) Main criticisms against the Nigerian civil service.

1. Corruption: Bribery, embezzlement and misappropriation of public funds are widespread.
2. Red-tapism and delay: Excessive bureaucratic procedures and "official channels" cause needless delay in getting things done.
3. Inefficiency and low productivity: Poor motivation, inadequate tools and idleness result in low output.
4. Nepotism and favouritism: Recruitment and promotion are often influenced by ethnic, political or family connections rather than merit.
5. Politicisation: Undue political interference undermines the neutrality and permanence of the service.
6. Poor attitude to work: Lateness, absenteeism and indifference to the public are common complaints.
7. Over-bloated size: The service is overstaffed, making the wage bill heavy and control difficult.

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Definition. A republican form of government is one in which the head of state is not a hereditary monarch but an elected president who holds office for a fixed term. Supreme power resides in the people, who exercise it through their elected representatives, and public offices are filled by election or appointment rather than by birth. Nigeria became a republic in 1963.

Essential characteristics.

1. Elected head of state: The head of state is a president chosen directly or indirectly by the people, not a king or queen who inherits the throne.
2. Fixed tenure of office: The head of state and other elected officials hold office for a definite term, after which fresh elections are held.
3. Sovereignty of the people: Ultimate political authority belongs to the people, who confer power on their leaders through periodic elections.
4. Absence of hereditary rulership: Public offices are not inherited; leadership is based on election and merit rather than on royal descent.
5. Supremacy of the constitution and rule of law: Government is conducted according to a written constitution which is the supreme law, and all persons, including leaders, are subject to the law.
6. Accountability of leaders: Elected officials are answerable to the people and can be removed through elections or constitutional processes such as impeachment.

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Meaning of Non-Alignment. Non-alignment is a foreign policy under which a state refuses to take permanent sides with any of the rival power blocs, especially the Western bloc led by the United States and the Eastern bloc led by the former Soviet Union during the Cold War. A non-aligned state remains neutral, judges each international issue on its own merit, and maintains friendly relations with all nations irrespective of their ideology. It was formalised at the Belgrade Conference of 1961, and Nigeria adopted it as a plank of her foreign policy at independence.

Advantages of the policy.

1. Preservation of sovereignty and independence: It enables a state to take decisions freely on the basis of its own national interest without being dictated to by any power bloc.
2. Freedom to relate with all nations: A non-aligned state can trade and cooperate with countries of both blocs and so obtain aid, technology and markets from the widest possible range of partners.
3. Promotion of world peace: By refusing to join military alliances and by mediating in disputes, non-aligned states help to reduce international tension and the risk of war.
4. Objective judgement of issues: Each international question is judged on its merit, allowing the state to support what is just rather than what a bloc dictates.
5. Strength in unity: By coming together in the Non-Aligned Movement, weak and developing nations gain a stronger collective voice in world affairs and in bodies such as the United Nations.
6. Avoidance of the cost of the arms race: Resources that would have been spent on bloc military commitments can be channelled into national development.

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The Action Group crisis of 1962 was a serious internal split within the Action Group, the party then controlling the Western Region. It arose from a combination of the following factors.

1. Leadership rivalry between Awolowo and Akintola: The struggle for supremacy between Chief Obafemi Awolowo, the national leader of the party, and Chief S. L. Akintola, the Premier of the Western Region, was the immediate cause of the split.
2. Ideological differences: Awolowo favoured a radical, welfarist and democratic-socialist programme, while Akintola preferred a more conservative approach and cooperation with the ruling coalition at the centre.
3. Disagreement over relations with the federal government: Akintola wanted the Action Group to join or align with the NPC-led federal government to attract development to the West, whereas Awolowo insisted on remaining in vigorous opposition.
4. Struggle for control of party funds and machinery: Contest over the control of party finances and the party organisation deepened the mutual distrust between the two camps.
5. Personal ambition and ethnic or sectional loyalties within the West: Personal ambitions of leading members, reinforced by sectional loyalties, hardened the two factions.
6. Interference of the federal government: The NPC-controlled federal government exploited the quarrel to weaken its main opponent, and its declaration of a state of emergency in the West in May 1962 turned the party quarrel into a full-blown regional crisis.

The crisis led to disorder in the Western House of Assembly, the removal and reinstatement disputes over the premiership, the emergency administration, and eventually the treason-felony trial of Chief Awolowo.

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The pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani and Igbo societies operated very different systems of administering justice, reflecting the difference between a centralised and a segmentary political system.

Points of similarity. In both societies the aim was to maintain peace and order, elders and experienced men played a part in adjudication, and both allowed some form of appeal, whether to the Emir in the North or to a wider assembly or oracle in Igboland.