WAEC SSCE - Geography - 2020

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The best mode of transportation to convey perishable goods is air transportation. Perishable goods, such as fresh produce or flowers, have a short shelf life and need to be transported quickly to their destination to maintain their quality and freshness. Air transportation is the fastest mode of transportation, allowing perishable goods to reach their destination quickly and efficiently. Air transportation also has the advantage of being able to maintain a consistent temperature throughout the journey, ensuring that the perishable goods are kept at their optimal temperature and reducing the risk of spoilage. While other modes of transportation, such as road and rail, may also be able to transport perishable goods, they are generally slower and may not have the same temperature control capabilities as air transportation. Pipeline transportation, on the other hand, is not suitable for transporting perishable goods as it is typically used for transporting liquids or gases. In summary, air transportation is the best mode of transportation for conveying perishable goods due to its speed and temperature control capabilities, allowing the goods to arrive at their destination quickly and in optimal condition.

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A country's longitudinal extent refers to the range of its longitudes, or the distance between its easternmost and westernmost points. The standard time zones are defined based on the Earth's rotation, and they are divided into 24 time zones, each with a longitudinal width of approximately 15°. Therefore, a country with a longitudinal extent of 155° would likely have 11 time zones. This is because 155° divided by 15° is approximately equal to 11. To be precise, it would have 10.3333 time zones, but since time zones are defined based on whole degrees, the actual number of time zones would be rounded up to 11.

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The annual range temperature is the difference between the hottest and coldest months of a place. Imagine you have a thermometer that measures the temperature every month. The highest temperature that the thermometer recorded is the hottest month, and the lowest temperature is the coldest month. The difference between these two temperatures is the annual range temperature. It gives you an idea of how much the temperature changes throughout the year in a specific place.

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International trade can be hindered by various factors. Out of the given options, the problems that hinder international trade are political instability, inadequate foreign exchange, and strained relations. Political instability refers to a situation where a country experiences frequent changes in government, civil unrest, or violent conflicts. This can negatively impact international trade as it creates uncertainty and risks for businesses, leading to a decrease in investment and economic growth. Inadequate foreign exchange occurs when a country doesn't have enough foreign currency to pay for imports or service its foreign debt. This can result in a shortage of essential goods and services, a decrease in investment, and a decrease in economic growth. Strained relations between countries can also hinder international trade. This can occur due to various reasons such as political conflicts, trade disputes, or diplomatic tensions. When countries have strained relations, it can lead to trade barriers, reduced investments, and a decrease in economic growth. Low tariffs, on the other hand, do not necessarily hinder international trade. In fact, they can encourage international trade as they make imported goods cheaper, leading to an increase in demand for foreign goods. Therefore, the correct answer is option D - I, III and IV only.

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The hinterland of a port refers to the area that is served by the port. This area includes the surrounding land and communities that rely on the port for their trade and transportation needs. It can extend quite far beyond the immediate vicinity of the port itself, as goods may be transported to and from the port via various modes of transportation such as trucks, trains, and barges. Essentially, the hinterland is the region that depends on the port for access to global markets and the movement of goods.

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The contour interval on a map represents the difference in elevation between adjacent contour lines. To determine the contour interval on the map, you can look for two adjacent contour lines and subtract their elevations. For example, if there are two contour lines on the map, one at 200m and the other at 150m, then the contour interval would be 50m (200m - 150m = 50m). This means that each contour line on the map represents a change in elevation of 50m. So, to answer the question, you need to look at the map and find two adjacent contour lines, and subtract their elevations to determine the contour interval.

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A great circle route is used to save time and fuel by flying the shortest distance between two points on the surface of the Earth. This route follows the curve of the Earth's surface, which is a sphere, and is the shortest distance between any two points on it. Using a great circle route, airplanes can avoid flying over long distances, such as deserts or oceans, and also avoid flying near the north pole. By taking the shortest distance possible, airlines can save both time and fuel, making their flights more efficient and cost-effective.

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Petroleum is usually found in sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and compression of sediment, such as sand, mud, and organic matter, over time. Over millions of years, the organic matter in these sediments can be transformed into petroleum through a process called diagenesis. Petroleum is often found in rock formations beneath the Earth's surface, such as sandstone or limestone, which are types of sedimentary rock. The petroleum can be extracted from these rocks through drilling. In summary, petroleum is usually found in sedimentary rocks, which are formed from the accumulation of sediment and organic matter over time.

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The major problem facing railway transportation compared to road transportation is the lack of flexibility. Unlike roads, which can be built and adjusted to suit different types of vehicles and traffic patterns, railways are fixed and require specialized infrastructure such as tracks, signals, and stations. This lack of flexibility can make it difficult for railways to adapt to changes in demand or to serve areas that are not directly on their route. In contrast, roads can be easily built or expanded to connect new areas, and vehicles can take different routes to reach their destinations. Additionally, road transportation is often seen as more convenient and accessible for individuals and businesses, as it allows for point-to-point travel and the ability to transport smaller loads. Railway transportation, on the other hand, is better suited for long-distance travel and heavy freight shipments. Therefore, the lack of flexibility of railway transportation is the main challenge facing it compared to road transportation.

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The establishment of industries in some rural areas of Tropical Africa can be explained by the development of rural areas. This means that efforts were made to improve the infrastructure, such as roads, electricity, and water supply, and to create favorable conditions for economic activity in these areas. This helped attract investment and create job opportunities in rural areas, which in turn encouraged the growth of industries. In this way, the development of rural areas played a key role in establishing industries in these areas.

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The temperature decreases with height in the troposphere. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, which extends from the surface up to about 7-20 kilometers depending on the location. The reason for the decrease in temperature with height in the troposphere is because the air is heated by the Earth's surface, and as you go higher, the air becomes thinner and less able to retain heat. In other layers of the atmosphere, such as the stratosphere, temperature can actually increase with height due to the presence of certain gases that absorb radiation from the sun. In the ionosphere and exosphere, the temperature can vary widely depending on the level of solar activity and other factors.

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The lower section of R. Kam is showing signs of an old stage because of the presence of meanders. Meanders are bends or loops in a river, and they are formed when a river flows over a plain. The flow of the river erodes the banks on the outer bend and deposits sediments on the inner bend, causing the river to change course over time. As the river continues to flow, the meanders become more pronounced, and the distance between the outer and inner bends increases. This process is called lateral migration and is a characteristic of an old stage river. Therefore, the presence of meanders in the lower section of R. Kam indicates that the river has been flowing for a long time and has reached an old stage.

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The predominant process of weathering in desert regions is physical weathering. This is because in deserts, the weather is often very hot and dry, with little to no moisture, which limits the activity of biological and chemical processes. Physical weathering is the process by which rocks and other geological materials are broken down into smaller pieces by physical forces such as temperature changes, wind erosion, and abrasion. In deserts, the extreme temperatures cause rocks to expand and contract, which eventually leads to cracks and fractures. These cracks and fractures then allow wind and water to erode the rocks further, eventually breaking them down into smaller pieces. So, in summary, physical weathering is the predominant process in desert regions because the hot and dry climate limits the activity of biological and chemical processes, and the extreme temperatures and wind erosion break down rocks and other geological materials into smaller pieces.

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A rock in which water cannot easily pass through is called impermeable. Impermeable means that the rock does not allow liquids or gases to pass through it easily. In other words, it is a solid barrier that prevents water from flowing through it. This is different from porous, which means that the rock allows water or other liquids to pass through it easily. An aquifer is a type of rock or soil that holds water and allows it to move through it.

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The establishment of cement industries near areas of limestone deposits is mainly due to the factor of "Source of raw material". Cement is made from limestone, which is a key ingredient in the production of cement. By having the limestone deposits nearby, the industries can easily access the raw material and minimize the cost of transportation. This makes it easier for the industries to produce cement efficiently and effectively. Hence, the proximity to the source of raw material is one of the important factors that determine the location of cement industries.

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The Earth is divided into 24 equal time zones, with each time zone spanning 15 degrees of longitude. The time in each time zone is based on the mean solar time at the central meridian of that time zone. The central meridian of a time zone is defined as the longitude that is exactly in the middle of the time zone. In this case, town A is located on longitude 15°E and town B is located on longitude 45°E. The difference in longitude between the two towns is 30 degrees (45°E - 15°E = 30°). Since each time zone spans 15 degrees of longitude and the difference in longitude between the two towns is 30 degrees, the time difference between the two towns is 2 hours (30° / 15° = 2). Therefore, if the local time in town A is 6.00am, the local time in town B will be 8.00am (6.00am + 2 hours = 8.00am).

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The day in which the length of day and night are equal everywhere on Earth is called the equinox. There are two equinoxes in a year: the March or Vernal Equinox and the September or Autumnal Equinox. During the equinox, the tilt of the Earth's axis is not pointed towards or away from the sun, resulting in equal amounts of daylight and darkness at all latitudes across the Earth. This happens because the Earth's axis is tilted by 23.5 degrees and as it orbits around the sun, different parts of the Earth receive varying amounts of sunlight. Therefore, the correct option is 21st March (March Equinox) and 22nd September (September Equinox) when the day and night are approximately equal in duration all over the world.

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The climate that is characterized by winter rain and summer drought is the Mediterranean climate. This type of climate is typically found in areas near the Mediterranean Sea, as well as in parts of California, Chile, South Africa, and Australia. In the winter, Mediterranean climates experience cool and wet weather due to the influence of mid-latitude storms. However, in the summer, these regions are affected by a high-pressure system that results in hot and dry weather with very little rainfall. This climate pattern has a significant impact on the vegetation and ecosystems in these regions, as many plants have adapted to survive the long dry summers by becoming dormant or developing drought-resistant characteristics. The Mediterranean climate is also important for agriculture, with many crops such as olives, grapes, and citrus fruits thriving in these conditions.

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The route "London -> Moscow -> Baghdad" is not a sea route. A sea route refers to a navigable waterway used for transportation of goods or passengers by ships. In this case, the route "London -> Moscow -> Baghdad" does not involve any sea voyage as it passes through landlocked regions, such as Moscow. On the other hand, the routes "London -> Cape Town --> Melbourne", "New York -> London -> Rotterdam", and "Sydney -> Suez -> London" all involve sea voyages, as they connect cities by navigable waterways. So, the route "London -> Moscow -> Baghdad" is not a sea route.

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A seaport can only be sited in settlements near the ocean or a large body of water that is deep enough for ships to safely dock. Out of the settlements listed, Bama is not near any ocean or large body of water and therefore cannot have a seaport. The other settlements, Kalu, Musa, and Obasa, may potentially have a seaport if they are near an ocean or large body of water.

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Coastal submergence is not a proof of the spherical shape of the Earth. Coastal submergence refers to the phenomenon where the level of the sea rises and covers parts of the coastal areas, due to factors such as tides and ocean currents. This is not directly related to the shape of the Earth, as the same coastal submergence can occur on a flat or any other shaped surface. To prove that the Earth is spherical, evidence such as the ship's visibility (where the hull of a ship disappears from view before the mast), the circular horizon, and the lunar eclipse (where the Earth's shadow on the moon is curved) are more appropriate.

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Suspension is a process of river transportation. Suspension occurs when small particles such as silt and clay are carried along with the river flow. These particles are suspended in the water and move along with the current. The water can carry these particles for long distances, even across entire continents. This process is facilitated by the speed and force of the river flow. When the water moves fast enough, it can lift and carry the small particles along with it. As the river slows down, the particles start to settle and may eventually be deposited on the riverbed or along the riverbanks. Other processes of river transportation include attrition, which is the gradual wearing down of rocks and boulders as they collide with each other and the riverbed, and abrasion, which is the erosion of the riverbed by the particles being carried in the water. Deflation, on the other hand, is a process that occurs when the wind blows away loose sediment, such as sand or silt, from the riverbanks or riverbed.

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Among the given options, the example of faulting is a Rift valley. A rift valley is a type of landform created when the earth's crust moves apart, causing a depression or a valley to form. This movement is caused by the tensional forces acting on the earth's crust, which can lead to the formation of faults. Faulting occurs when there is a fracture or a crack in the earth's crust, and one side moves relative to the other. In the case of a rift valley, the earth's crust is pulled apart, creating a steep-sided valley with a flat floor. This type of landform is common in areas where tectonic plates are diverging, such as the East African Rift Zone or the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. In summary, a rift valley is an example of faulting because it is created by the movement of the earth's crust due to tensional forces, which can cause a fracture or a fault in the crust, leading to the formation of a valley with steep sides and a flat floor.

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Intensive farming is characterized by the practice of maximizing agricultural yield by using a small amount of land and a high input of labor, capital, and technology. One common location for intensive farming is in urban centers where the human population is high. This is because there is a greater demand for food, and urban areas often have limited space for traditional farming practices. In addition, transportation costs are reduced, and fresh produce can be delivered quickly to nearby markets. Therefore, intensive farming can be an effective way to meet the food needs of urban populations.

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(a) Four characteristics of nucleated settlements

1. The houses and buildings are closely packed and grouped together around a central point such as a market, well, church or road junction.
2. There is a compact, clustered form with little open space between the dwellings.
3. Buildings and services (shops, school, place of worship) are concentrated in one place, so people live near one another and near their facilities.
4. The farmland lies outside and around the built-up cluster, so farmers travel out to their fields from the settlement.

(b) Four functions of cities in the world

• Administrative: serving as centres of government and headquarters of institutions.
• Commercial: acting as markets and centres of trade, banking and business.
• Industrial: hosting factories and manufacturing.
• Service and cultural: providing education, health, transport, entertainment and religious services for the surrounding region.

(c) Four factors that favour the growth of settlements

1. Reliable water supply from rivers, springs or lakes.
2. Fertile soil and good farmland that provide food.
3. Favourable relief and climate (well-drained, gently sloping land with a healthy climate).
4. Good transport links, trade and security, together with employment opportunities and available building land, which attract people to settle and stay.

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Outline map of Nigeria showing the required physical regions and town:

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(a) Two sources of thermal energy in Nigeria are:

1. Fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) used to generate electricity and power industries.
2. Biomass (such as wood, charcoal, and animal waste) used for cooking and heating.

Two sources of renewable energy in Nigeria are:

1. Solar energy, which can be harnessed through photovoltaic (PV) panels to generate electricity and power homes and businesses.
2. Wind energy, which can be harnessed through wind turbines to generate electricity.

(b) Four problems hindering the development of thermal energy in Nigeria are:

1. Inadequate infrastructure and financing for power generation, transmission, and distribution.
2. Poor maintenance of existing thermal power plants, leading to frequent breakdowns and reduced efficiency.
3. Dependence on imported fossil fuels, which are subject to price fluctuations and supply disruptions.
4. Environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels, leading to climate change and health problems.

(c) Solutions to the problems identified in (b) are:

1. Investing in the development of infrastructure and financing mechanisms for power generation, transmission, and distribution to improve the reliability and affordability of electricity.
2. Improving the maintenance of existing thermal power plants to reduce breakdowns and increase efficiency.
3. Diversifying the energy mix to include more renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, which are abundant in Nigeria and can be harnessed locally, reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels.
4. Encouraging the adoption of clean energy technologies and practices, such as carbon capture and storage, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and minimize the environmental impact of thermal energy generation.

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(a) Three characteristics of ocean transportation

• Uses natural waterways: Ocean transport moves along the seas and oceans, which are free natural highways requiring no construction of the route itself, only ports and harbours.
• Handles bulky and heavy goods cheaply: Large ocean-going vessels (tankers, bulk carriers, container ships) can carry enormous volumes of low-value, bulky cargo such as crude oil, grain and ores over long distances at very low cost per tonne.
• Slow but long-distance and international in scope: It is the slowest major mode, yet it links continents and is the dominant means of international trade; it also depends on the weather and can be interrupted by storms and rough seas.

(b) Three advantages of water transportation

• Cheapness: The route is provided free by nature, so it is the cheapest means of moving bulky goods over long distances.
• Large carrying capacity: A single ship or barge can carry a very large load, far more than a lorry or aircraft, making it economical for bulk commodities.
• Low energy and maintenance cost: Because there is no road or rail track to build and maintain, and vessels use fuel efficiently for the load carried, running costs are low; it also causes little land pollution.

(c) Four ways poor transportation network hinders economic development

• Restricts movement of goods to market: Farmers and producers cannot move their produce to markets or ports easily, so goods perish, prices fall and production is discouraged.
• Raises the cost of goods and production: Poor roads increase transport charges, vehicle repairs and delays, which raise the prices of raw materials and finished goods and reduce profits and investment.
• Discourages industrial location and investment: Industries avoid areas that are hard to reach, so mineral and agricultural resources remain unexploited and jobs are not created.
• Isolates regions and slows the spread of services: Remote areas remain cut off from schools, hospitals, banks and government services, widening regional inequality and slowing national integration and development.

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(a) Sketch map of Nigeria

Key: the shaded southern belt represents the Rainforest Belt; the shaded extreme north-eastern part represents the Sahel Savanna; the dot in the south-western interior is Ibadan.

(b) Characteristics of the rainforest belt

1. It has tall, evergreen broad-leaved trees, many of which have buttress roots.
2. The vegetation has distinct layers or storeys, namely the lower, middle and upper canopy layers.
3. The thick canopy allows little sunlight to reach the ground; consequently, there is little undergrowth.

(c) Economic importance of rainforest vegetation in Nigeria

1. It supplies valuable hardwood timber such as iroko, obeche and mahogany for building, furniture and export.
2. It provides employment in logging, sawmilling, furniture making and timber trading.
3. It supports the cultivation of plantation crops such as cocoa, rubber and oil palm.
4. It supplies fuelwood and charcoal for domestic cooking and small-scale industries.

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(a) Five reasons for industrial localization (why industries cluster in particular places)

1. Nearness to raw materials: industries that use bulky or perishable raw materials locate close to their source to cut transport costs (for example cement near limestone).
2. Availability of power/energy such as hydroelectricity, coal or gas needed to run machines.
3. Nearness to market: industries settle near large populations that buy their goods, especially where the product is bulky or fragile.
4. Supply of labour: a large pool of skilled and unskilled workers attracts industry.
5. Good transport and infrastructure (roads, rail, ports, water) and the pull of existing industries and services (agglomeration), which make one another cheaper to run.

Also acceptable: availability of capital, water supply and favourable government policy.

(b) Five benefits of establishing manufacturing industries in rural areas

• Creation of rural employment, reducing joblessness and idleness in the villages.
• Reduction of rural-urban migration, since young people find work at home instead of crowding into cities.
• Development of rural infrastructure: roads, electricity, water and health services are provided to serve the industry and the community.
• Raising of rural incomes and standard of living, and a wider market for local farm produce used as raw materials.
• Even (balanced) regional development, spreading wealth to the countryside and easing pressure and congestion in the towns.