WAEC SSCE - Agricultural Science - 1994

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The botanical name for guinea grass is "Panicum maximum". Therefore, the option that represents the botanical name for guinea grass is "panicum maximum". Guinea grass is a perennial grass that is commonly grown for pasture and hay production in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is a tall grass with long leaves and has a high tolerance for drought and heavy grazing pressure.

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Using an N'dama bull to mate with a Muturu cow is an example of cross-breeding. Cross-breeding involves mating two different breeds of animals to produce offspring with desirable traits from both breeds. In this case, the N'dama bull and Muturu cow are two different breeds of cattle. By mating them, the offspring would have characteristics of both breeds, such as disease resistance from the N'dama and heat tolerance from the Muturu. In contrast, inbreeding involves mating closely related individuals, which can lead to an increased risk of genetic defects and other problems. Selection involves choosing individuals with desirable traits to breed, while introduction involves bringing in new breeds of animals to a population. Artificial insemination involves using technology to fertilize eggs outside of the animal's body and then implanting them into the female animal.

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The planting depth of rice grain is about 2-4 cm. This means that when planting rice, the seeds should be buried in the soil at a depth of 2-4 cm. This is the recommended depth for optimum growth and development of rice plants. Planting at a depth that is too shallow or too deep can lead to poor germination and low yield. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the planting depth is appropriate when planting rice.

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The correct option is (D) andropogon. Andropogon is not a pasture legume but a grass species. Pasture legumes are important forage crops that are high in protein, digestibility, and minerals and help to improve soil fertility. Examples of pasture legumes include pueraria, calopogonium, centrosema, and stylosanthes.

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Nutritional deficiency diseases in livestock are caused by a lack of one or more essential nutrients in the diet, leading to health problems and decreased productivity. Among the options provided, oesteomalacia is the nutritional deficiency disease of livestock caused by a lack of calcium and/or phosphorus in their diet, leading to softening and weakening of bones, lameness, and decreased milk production in dairy animals.

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Metamorphic rocks are formed through chemical changes caused by heat and pressure. When rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures, the minerals and textures within them can change. This process is called metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks, which can be igneous, sedimentary, or even other metamorphic rocks. During metamorphism, the rocks are subjected to intense heat and pressure, which can cause the minerals in the rock to change. This can result in changes to the color, texture, and overall appearance of the rock. Some common examples of metamorphic rocks include marble, slate, and gneiss. In contrast, the other options listed involve different processes for rock formation. Physical disintegration of igneous rocks and alternative layering of particles of sedimentary and igneous rocks are processes involved in the formation of sedimentary rocks, while the combination of igneous and sedimentary rocks can result in the formation of hybrid rocks known as igneous-sedimentary rocks. Biological change of original rock, on the other hand, is not a common process in rock formation.

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Cassava is the crop that is tolerant to both poor and rich friable soils. Cassava is a hardy crop that can grow well in poor soils with low nutrient levels as well as in rich, fertile soils. It is also tolerant to drought and can survive in areas with irregular rainfall patterns. Because of its ability to grow in diverse soil conditions, cassava is an important food crop in many developing countries.

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The statement that is not correct is "finisher ration is for feeding chicks from day-old to market size." Finisher ration is not used to feed chicks from day-old to market size. Instead, it is used to feed growing birds that are close to reaching their market size or maturity. Finisher ration is typically fed to broilers after they have been on a starter and grower ration. Finisher ration is formulated with a lower protein content and higher energy content compared to starter and grower rations. This helps the birds to gain weight and reach their market size more efficiently. The duration of feeding finisher ration depends on the breed of bird and the market weight they are being raised for. In summary, finisher ration is not used to feed chicks from day-old to market size, but instead is used to feed growing birds that are nearing their market weight or maturity.

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Natural immunity against diseases is conferred on the newly born animal through feeding with colostrum. Colostrum is the first milk produced by female mammals immediately after giving birth. It contains high levels of antibodies, which are proteins that fight against diseases and infections. When a newborn animal drinks colostrum, the antibodies in the colostrum are absorbed into its bloodstream, providing it with natural immunity against a wide range of diseases. This immunity is temporary and gradually fades away over time, but it is crucial in protecting the animal during its early life. Vaccination, sanitation, and administration of antibiotics and drugs can also help to protect animals against diseases, but they do not confer natural immunity like colostrum does.

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A balanced diet is a meal that contains all the essential nutrients required by the body in the right proportions. These nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, minerals and vitamins. Sucrose, on the other hand, is a type of sugar that is not considered an essential nutrient for the body. Therefore, the component of a balanced diet that is not listed above is sucrose.

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The answer to this question is that mechanization would remain uneconomical in West Africa as long as farmers are small and scattered. This is because mechanization requires a certain level of scale to be economical, and small, scattered farms make it difficult to achieve that scale. Additionally, the cost of acquiring and maintaining machinery may be too high for individual smallholder farmers.

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Coal is an example of a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of sediments or organic matter. Coal is formed from the accumulation of dead plant material in swamps and marshes. Over time, the weight of the sediment on top of the plant material causes it to be compacted and heated, eventually forming coal.

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The reason for smoking fish is to preserve it. Smoking is a traditional method of preserving fish that has been used for centuries. The process of smoking involves exposing the fish to smoke produced by burning wood or other materials. This smoke contains chemicals that inhibit the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms that cause spoilage. As a result, the fish can be stored for longer periods of time without refrigeration or other forms of preservation. Smoking also imparts a distinct flavor to the fish that is often considered desirable. The smoke and heat from the smoking process cause the fish to become dehydrated and partially cooked, which can enhance its flavor and texture. Therefore, the reason for smoking fish is to preserve it and enhance its flavor.

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A fungicide is important in maize production because it assists in the control of corn smut. Fungicides are chemicals used to control fungal diseases, and corn smut is a common fungal disease that affects maize crops. It can reduce the yield and quality of the maize produced. Therefore, applying a fungicide can help to prevent or control the spread of the disease and increase crop yield. However, fungicides may not be effective against other pests such as stem borers or mammals.

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Prolonged application of ammonium sulphate fertilizer on a given soil can lead to an increase in soil acidity. This is because ammonium sulphate fertilizer contains ammonium ions that can be converted to nitrate by soil bacteria. During this process, hydrogen ions are released, leading to an increase in soil acidity. This increased acidity can damage soil structure and reduce the availability of nutrients for plants. Additionally, some crops may not grow well in acidic soil conditions. Therefore, it is important to carefully manage the application of ammonium sulphate fertilizer to prevent negative effects on soil quality.

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The National Tree-planting campaign in Nigeria is an example of afforestation. Afforestation is the process of establishing a forest, or stand of trees, in an area where there was no forest. The National Tree-planting campaign aims to increase the country's forest cover and combat deforestation, soil erosion, and climate change. It involves planting new trees and protecting existing forests, and it is an effort towards afforestation.

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Land is considered to be an essential factor in agricultural production because it is the natural resource where crop, fisheries, and livestock production take place. Agriculture involves the cultivation of crops, rearing of livestock, and fish farming, all of which are carried out on land. Agricultural land provides a habitat for crops and animals to grow and reproduce. Moreover, agricultural production cannot take place without land, as other factors of production such as labor, capital, and technology are useless without land. Although other resources can be substituted, land cannot be increased in quantity as it is a finite resource. Hence, land is a crucial resource for agricultural production and cannot be overlooked. In summary, land is an essential factor in agricultural production because it provides a physical space for the production of crops, fisheries, and livestock. Without land, agricultural production cannot take place, and other resources are rendered useless.

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Land use is the way in which human beings use land for various purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, settlement, recreation, among others. Several factors influence land use, including population density, population growth, climatic conditions, topography, and fallowing. However, the question asks for the factor that does not influence land use. Therefore, the answer would be "fallowing," which is a land management practice that involves leaving the land uncultivated for some time to allow it to regenerate and improve its fertility. Fallowing is not an influence on land use but rather a practice that farmers use to improve soil fertility and manage land.

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One primary product of forest trees is timber, which is also known as wood or lumber. Timber is the wood that is harvested from trees and used for construction, furniture, and many other purposes. After the trees are harvested, they are cut into different sizes and shapes, depending on their intended use. For example, larger trees can be used for building homes and furniture, while smaller trees can be used for paper and other products. While paper, particle board, cardboard, and pulp can all be made from wood, they are not considered primary products of forest trees because they require additional processing and manufacturing steps to turn the wood into these products. In contrast, timber is the raw product that comes directly from the trees and can be used for many different purposes.

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Electricity can be used as a source of power for the following farm operations: - processing: such as grinding, milling, and blending of agricultural products - storage: such as cooling, drying, and preservation of crops - extraction: such as pressing of oil from seeds or nuts. Therefore, the set of farm operations that can use electricity as a source of power is "processing, storage and extraction."

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The primary product of ginger is the rhizome. Ginger is a flowering plant whose underground stem or rhizome is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. The rhizome is the part of the ginger plant that is harvested and used in cooking or for its medicinal properties. Ginger rhizomes are usually peeled and grated, sliced, or ground to be used in various dishes or as a herbal remedy for different ailments.

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The option that does not improve agricultural production in West Africa is "continued adoption of the communal land holding system". The communal land holding system refers to a traditional land tenure system in which land is owned and managed by a community rather than individual landowners. However, this system has been identified as a major constraint to agricultural development in West Africa because it limits individual farmers' incentives to invest in their land and improve their productivity. On the other hand, the other options listed can improve agricultural production in West Africa. The ability of farmers to purchase modern farm implements can help to increase efficiency and productivity on the farm. Expansive irrigation of farmlands can help to mitigate the effects of drought and increase crop yields. Adoption and proper application of tested findings of agricultural research can help farmers to adopt improved practices and technologies that can enhance their productivity. Adequate supply of improved seeds and livestock to farmers can help to increase crop and livestock yields, leading to improved livelihoods and food security. Therefore, continued adoption of the communal land holding system is the option that does not improve agricultural production in West Africa.

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The plant part or modification that is not suitable for propagation of pastures is leaves. Leaves are not typically used for propagation of pastures because they do not contain the necessary structures for growth and development into a new plant. While leaves do play an important role in photosynthesis and nutrient storage, they are not able to develop into a new plant on their own. Stem cuttings, seeds, stolons, and rhizomes are all suitable for propagation of pastures. Stem cuttings can be taken from mature plants and rooted to form new plants. Seeds can be collected from mature plants and planted to produce new plants. Stolons and rhizomes are specialized stem structures that allow the plant to spread and form new shoots, making them ideal for propagation. In summary, leaves are not suitable for propagation of pastures, while stem cuttings, seeds, stolons, and rhizomes are all commonly used for this purpose.

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The option that is not correct about market in agriculture is "a place for social activities". While it is true that markets may provide opportunities for social interactions, the primary purpose of a market is to facilitate buying and selling activities. Markets in agriculture can be physical or virtual and may involve various types of transactions, including spot sales, forward contracts, and futures contracts. The market brings together buyers and sellers, who negotiate prices and quantities, and determine the terms of the transaction. In this way, markets play an important role in the economy by facilitating the exchange of goods and services between buyers and sellers.

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The damage to the stem of maize plants resulting in hollowness and lodging is most likely caused by stem borers. Stem borers are insects that bore into the stem of the plant and feed on the inner tissues, leading to hollowness and weakness of the stem. As a result, the stem is unable to support the weight of the plant, causing lodging. This is a common problem in maize production and can significantly reduce yields if not controlled.

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The main purpose of including leguminous crops in pastures is to serve as a source of proteins. Leguminous crops are known to have high protein content and are commonly used as a source of protein for livestock in pastures. Leguminous crops such as alfalfa, clover, and soybean are nitrogen-fixing plants that can help improve soil fertility and provide high-quality protein for grazing animals. Protein is an essential nutrient for animal growth and development, and including leguminous crops in pastures can help ensure that animals have access to this important nutrient.

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Parturition refers to the process of giving birth in animals. There are several signs that indicate that an animal is approaching parturition. However, one of the options listed is not a sign of approaching parturition. 1. Preparation of nests by the dam: Some animals, such as rabbits and rodents, will prepare a nest for their young before giving birth. This behavior is an indication that parturition is imminent. 2. Swelling of the vulva: The vulva is the external opening of the reproductive tract in female animals. As parturition approaches, the vulva may become swollen and more prominent. 3. Enlargement of the mammary glands: The mammary glands in female animals produce milk for their young. As parturition approaches, the mammary glands may become enlarged and begin to produce colostrum, a nutrient-rich fluid that provides essential antibodies to the newborn. 4. Mounting of other animals: The mounting behavior in animals, such as horses or cows, is an indication that they are in heat and ready for breeding. This behavior is not a sign of approaching parturition. 5. Loss of appetite: Some animals may experience a decrease in appetite as parturition approaches. This can be due to discomfort or changes in hormone levels. In conclusion, the sign that is not an indication of approaching parturition is mounting of other animals. The other signs listed, including preparation of nests, swelling of the vulva, enlargement of the mammary glands, and loss of appetite, can be useful in predicting when an animal is about to give birth.

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The assistance given to farmers by the government in the form of a reduction in price is generally referred to as a subsidy. A subsidy is a form of financial assistance given by the government to support a particular activity or industry, in this case, agricultural production. In agriculture, subsidies are given to farmers to help them reduce their production costs by providing financial support for inputs like fertilizers, seeds, and pesticides. This helps farmers to increase their yields and profits, which in turn leads to an increase in the supply of food and a reduction in the price of food in the market. Moreover, subsidies encourage farmers to adopt modern technology and improve their farming practices. By reducing the cost of inputs, farmers can afford to invest in new equipment and technologies that improve the efficiency of their farming operations. In summary, a subsidy is the assistance given to farmers by the government in the form of a reduction in price. It is a form of financial support that helps farmers to increase their production and income, adopt modern technologies and practices, and ultimately contributes to an increase in the supply of food and a reduction in the price of food in the market.

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The response of crops to day-length is referred to as photoperiodism. Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night. In plants, it influences flowering, dormancy, and other developmental processes. It is important in agriculture as it helps determine the appropriate timing for planting and harvesting of crops.

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The correct answer is: egg-nymph-adult. Locusts undergo incomplete metamorphosis, which means that they do not have a pupal stage. Instead, they go through three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The life cycle of a locust begins when a female locust lays her eggs in soil. After a period of incubation, the eggs hatch into nymphs, which look like small versions of adult locusts but lack wings. Nymphs go through several molts as they grow and develop, becoming larger and more mature with each molt. Eventually, they reach adulthood and develop wings that enable them to fly and migrate long distances in search of food and suitable breeding sites. The adult stage is the final stage of the locust life cycle, during which time the insects mate, lay eggs, and die. Depending on environmental conditions, the entire life cycle of a locust can take anywhere from several weeks to several months.

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Shellers are used to remove grains from cobs. This is usually done in crops such as maize, where the kernels are tightly attached to the cob. The process involves passing the maize cob through the shellers, which use a combination of mechanical and/or pneumatic force to separate the grains from the cob. The grains are then collected while the cobs are discarded as waste.

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A moistened soil sample that can be moulded into a smooth continuous ring is a characteristic of a soil with a significant clay content. This is because soils with higher clay content have the ability to hold water and maintain soil structure even when moistened. Clay particles are very small and have a large surface area, so they can hold a lot of water and nutrients. Therefore, a soil with a high clay content will feel sticky when wet and can be easily moulded, indicating its cohesive properties. So, the correct option is heavy clay.

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The application of pressure on a ring inserted through the nostril of a bull is known as bull nose ringing. It is believed to have a calming effect on the bull, making it more manageable and easier to handle. The ring applies pressure on sensitive nerves in the nostril, which helps to control the bull's movements and reduces its resistance. This makes it easier for farmers to handle and transport the animal. The practice is not without controversy, however, as some animal welfare groups argue that it can cause unnecessary pain and discomfort to the bull.

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The farm animal whose skin or hide cannot be used for leather production is the chicken. This is because the skin of a chicken is too thin and not suitable for leather production, unlike the skin of other animals such as goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs. While chickens are typically raised for their meat and eggs, their skin is not a viable source for leather production.

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Four climatic factors that affect agricultural production in Nigeria

• Rainfall: The amount, distribution and reliability of rainfall determine the type of crops grown and the length of the growing season. Adequate, well-distributed rainfall gives good yields, while too little causes drought and too much causes flooding, leaching and erosion.
• Temperature: Temperature affects germination, growth, flowering and ripening of crops and the distribution of animals and plants. Each crop has an optimum temperature range; very high or very low temperatures reduce growth and yield.
• Sunlight (solar radiation): Sunlight supplies the energy for photosynthesis, by which plants manufacture food. The intensity and duration (day length) of sunlight influence flowering, fruiting and the overall yield of crops.
• Wind: Moderate wind aids pollination, seed dispersal and drying of produce. However, strong winds cause lodging of crops, soil erosion, increased evaporation and can spread pests and diseases.

Relative humidity, which affects transpiration and the incidence of pests and diseases, is another important climatic factor.

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Process of egg formation in poultry

Egg formation takes place in the reproductive tract of the hen and takes about 24 to 26 hours to complete one egg.

1. Ovary: The yolk (ovum) develops and is stored in follicles on the ovary. When a yolk is mature it is released (ovulation).
2. Infundibulum (funnel): The released yolk is picked up by the funnel-shaped infundibulum. Fertilization by sperm, if the hen has mated, takes place here.
3. Magnum: As the yolk moves down, the thick albumen (egg white) is secreted and added around it.
4. Isthmus: The two shell membranes (inner and outer) are formed around the albumen here.
5. Uterus (shell gland): Water and mineral salts are added to the albumen (plumping), and calcium carbonate is deposited to form the hard shell. Shell colour or pigment is also added at this stage.
6. Vagina and cloaca: The completed egg passes into the vagina and is finally laid through the vent (oviposition), usually with the broad end first.

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Short notes on the factors of agricultural production

(a) Land

Land is the natural resource or free gift of nature on which agricultural production takes place. It includes the soil, water bodies, forests and mineral deposits. Land is fixed in supply and immobile, and its quality varies from place to place. Its reward is rent.

(b) Capital

Capital is the man-made wealth used in production. It includes money, farm tools, machinery, buildings, seeds, fertilizers and livestock. Capital is used to acquire other inputs and to expand production; it can be increased and it depreciates with use. Its reward is interest.

(c) Labour

Labour is the human physical and mental effort used in production. It may be skilled or unskilled and supplies the workforce that carries out farm operations such as planting, weeding and harvesting. Its reward is wages or salary.

(d) Farm manager

The farm manager is the person who organises and coordinates the other factors of production. He plans, directs and controls the farm business, takes decisions, keeps records and bears the risks of production to ensure efficient use of resources. His reward is profit.

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(a) Taungya system

The taungya system is a method of combined forestry and crop production in which farmers are allowed to grow arable food crops in between young forest tree seedlings on forest land. The farmers tend both their crops and the young trees until the trees form a canopy, after which cropping stops.

(b) Five conditions that favour the practice of the taungya system in Nigeria

• Availability of forest land or forest reserve to be planted with trees.
• Shortage of farmland (land hunger) that makes farmers willing to use forest land.
• Availability of willing farmers who can supply the needed labour.
• Suitable food crops that do not compete strongly with the young trees for light and nutrients.
• Good cooperation and agreement between the forestry department and the farmers, and a climate suitable for both trees and crops.

(c) Two advantages of the system to each party

(i) To the farmer

• He obtains fertile forest land to grow food crops free of charge or at low cost.
• He earns income and food from the crops produced, and gains employment.

(ii) To the forester

• The cost of raising and tending the forest plantation is reduced because the farmers weed and care for the young trees.
• It ensures the successful establishment of the forest plantation and reduces weed growth and fire risk.

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Named ruminant: Cattle (cow)

Digestion in cattle

1. The cow plucks grass, chews it only slightly and swallows it. The food is mixed with much saliva and passes through the oesophagus into the rumen and reticulum.
2. In the rumen, bacteria, protozoa and fungi ferment cellulose in the grass. These micro-organisms produce cellulase, which the cow itself does not produce. Some volatile fatty acids formed are absorbed through the rumen wall.
3. The partly fermented food is formed into balls called cud. During rest, the cud is regurgitated from the reticulum through the oesophagus to the mouth by reverse peristalsis.
4. In the mouth, the cud is chewed thoroughly and mixed again with saliva. It is then re-swallowed. This repeated chewing and swallowing is called rumination.
5. The re-swallowed food passes to the omasum. Its many folds grind the food further and absorb water and some mineral salts.
6. Food then enters the abomasum, the true stomach. It secretes hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes, especially pepsin, which digest proteins, including proteins of the micro-organisms.
7. In the small intestine, bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal enzymes complete digestion. Digested nutrients are absorbed through the villi into the blood and lymph.
8. Some remaining fibre is acted upon by micro-organisms in the caecum and large intestine. Water is absorbed in the large intestine, while undigested residue is expelled through the anus as faeces or dung.

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(a) Irrigation

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil or crops to supplement rainfall so as to provide enough moisture for plant growth.

(b) Six sources of water for irrigation

• Rivers
• Streams
• Lakes
• Dams and reservoirs
• Boreholes and wells (underground water)
• Harvested rain water (springs and ponds are also sources)

(c) Three reasons why irrigation schemes are necessary in Nigeria

• To make crop production possible in the dry season and all year round.
• To supplement the inadequate and unreliable rainfall, especially in the northern (arid and semi-arid) parts.
• To bring dry, otherwise unproductive land into cultivation and increase food production.

(d) Sprinkler versus surface irrigation

Two similarities

• Both are methods of supplying water artificially to crops.
• Both help to increase crop yield and make dry-season farming possible.

Three differences

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(a) Demand, supply and the laws governing them

Demand is the quantity of a commodity that consumers are willing and able to buy at a given price at a particular time. The law of demand states that, other things being equal, the higher the price of a commodity, the lower the quantity demanded, and the lower the price, the higher the quantity demanded.

Supply is the quantity of a commodity that producers or sellers are willing and able to offer for sale at a given price at a particular time. The law of supply states that, other things being equal, the higher the price of a commodity, the higher the quantity supplied, and the lower the price, the lower the quantity supplied.

(b) Implications of demand and supply on agricultural production

• When the price of farm produce is high, farmers are encouraged to produce more, thereby increasing supply.
• When supply exceeds demand (a glut), prices fall, farmers earn less and may reduce production in the next season.
• When demand exceeds supply (scarcity), prices rise and this encourages increased production.
• The perishable and seasonal nature of farm produce causes price fluctuations that affect farmers' incomes.
• Demand and supply guide the farmer on what crop to grow and how much to produce, and help government to plan price-stabilization and storage policies.

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(a) Natural grassland

Natural grassland is an area of land that is naturally covered with grasses, herbs and a few scattered trees or shrubs which grow on their own, without being deliberately planted or cultivated by man.

(b) Five characteristics of natural grassland

• It is dominated by grasses and grows naturally without cultivation.
• It contains a mixture of different grass species together with some pasture legumes.
• It regenerates on its own after grazing, cutting or burning.
• It is commonly found in areas of moderate to low rainfall (the savanna) and may carry scattered trees and shrubs.
• It is used mainly for the grazing of livestock and shows seasonal changes in growth.

(c) Four grasses and three pasture legumes commonly found in natural grasslands

Grasses:

• Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
• Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
• Star grass (Cynodon species)
• Gamba/giant grass (Andropogon species)

Pasture legumes:

• Centro (Centrosema pubescens)
• Stylo (Stylosanthes species)
• Tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides)

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(a) Land tenure system and four examples

Land tenure system is the system of customs and laws by which land is owned, acquired, held, controlled and used by an individual or a community.

Four examples are:

• Inheritance (land passed down from parents to children).
• Purchase / freehold (outright buying of land).
• Lease / leasehold (land held for a fixed period on payment).
• Communal ownership (land owned by a whole community); rent/tenancy, gift and pledge are other examples.

(b) (i) Land Use Decree

The Land Use Decree (Land Use Act) of 1978 is a Nigerian law that vests all land within a state in the Governor of that state, who holds it in trust for the people. Land is granted to individuals and organisations through a Certificate of Occupancy; urban land is controlled by the state Governor and rural land by the Local Government.

(ii) Two advantages and two disadvantages

Advantages

• It makes land more easily available for development and government projects.
• It reduces land litigation and disputes, and a Certificate of Occupancy can be used as collateral for loans.

Disadvantages

• Obtaining a Certificate of Occupancy is often slow, costly and bureaucratic.
• Government can revoke land with inadequate compensation, and excessive government control discourages large-scale private acquisition.

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(a) Farm surveying

Farm surveying is the process of measuring, mapping and recording the relative positions, boundaries, sizes, shapes and areas of a piece of farmland, and representing them to scale on paper.

(b) (i) Six surveying instruments

• Measuring (surveyor's) tape
• Ranging pole
• Surveyor's chain (Gunter's chain)
• Prismatic compass
• Theodolite
• Dumpy level (arrows/pins and pegs are also used)

(ii) Short notes on four instruments

• Ranging pole: A straight pole painted in alternate red and white bands. It is used to mark points and to align or range straight lines during a survey.
• Measuring tape: A flexible steel or linen tape graduated in metres. It is used to measure distances between points on the ground.
• Prismatic compass: A small hand-held instrument containing a magnetic needle. It is used to measure the bearings or directions of survey lines.
• Theodolite: A precise instrument mounted on a tripod, used to measure horizontal and vertical angles accurately in detailed surveys.