WAEC SSCE - Government - 2011

Akọwa Nkọwa

The concept of political culture was introduced by Gabriel Almond, an American political scientist. He argued that the beliefs, values, and attitudes of a society towards politics and government influence the way in which the political system operates. This includes factors such as the level of trust citizens have in their leaders, the degree of political participation, and the ways in which people view the role of government in society. Political culture is an important factor to consider in understanding how a political system functions, as it shapes the behavior of both politicians and citizens.

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In a two-party system, only two political parties dominate the political scene. This means that these two parties hold a significant amount of power and influence in the political landscape of the country. Other political parties may exist, but they typically have little chance of winning elections or affecting policy decisions. This can lead to a more polarized political environment where the two dominant parties compete for power and control, often leading to a winner-takes-all situation.

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Citizenship is the status of being a member of a particular country and enjoying the rights and privileges that come with it. In some cases, a person may want to change their citizenship, for example, to become a citizen of another country. This can be done through a process known as renunciation, where the individual formally gives up their citizenship of their current country. This process usually involves filling out specific forms and submitting them to the relevant authorities, and may also involve meeting certain requirements such as residing in the new country for a specific period of time. Therefore, the correct answer is "renunciation".

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Akọwa Nkọwa

Political parties mainly present their manifestoes to the electorate on Campaigns and rallies. This is because rallies and campaigns are a way for political parties to connect with the electorate, and to communicate their policies and plans to the people. During rallies and campaigns, party leaders and candidates speak directly to the people, outlining their plans and answering questions. It is an opportunity for the parties to showcase their ideas and to rally support for their candidates. Therefore, campaigns and rallies are a critical platform for political parties to present their manifestoes to the electorate.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A common feature in a pre-colonial centralized state was "loyalty to one political superior". This means that the citizens of the state were loyal to one political leader who had ultimate power and authority. This political superior was usually a monarch or a king who had control over the entire state. The loyalty of the citizens to the political superior was the basis for the stability and continuity of the state. The citizens were expected to obey the laws and rules of the state, and the political superior was responsible for the protection and welfare of the citizens. This feature was present in many pre-colonial centralized states in Africa and other parts of the world.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Political socialization refers to the process through which individuals develop their political beliefs, values, and attitudes. It is influenced by various factors, including family, friends, school, media, and the broader social and cultural environment. Out of the options provided, tourism and diplomatic immunity are less likely to contribute to political socialization. Terrorism can have an indirect impact on political socialization by influencing people's attitudes towards security, foreign policy, and the role of the state in protecting its citizens. Gerrymandering, however, is not a factor that contributes to political socialization, as it refers to the manipulation of electoral boundaries for political gain, rather than the development of political beliefs and attitudes.

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Government as an institution of the state is defined as a body which makes, enforces and interprets laws for the state. In other words, government is responsible for creating policies, regulations and rules that govern a country or state. The government is also responsible for enforcing these laws and interpreting them through the judiciary system. Additionally, the government may also have the power to conduct elections, hire and train political leaders, and carry out various administrative functions related to the management of the state.

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Democracy originated from Greece. The concept of democracy was first introduced in Athens, Greece in the 5th century BC. The word "democracy" comes from the Greek words "demos" meaning "people" and "kratos" meaning "rule" or "power". Athenian democracy was a direct democracy where citizens gathered in assemblies to vote directly on laws and policies. Although Athenian democracy was limited to free male citizens, it provided the foundation for modern democratic systems. Today, democracy has become the most widely accepted form of government, with many countries adopting democratic principles and systems.

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Efficiency of public corporations can be enhanced through less government interference. When public corporations are less encumbered by government bureaucracy and interference, they can be more agile and make decisions more quickly. This can lead to increased productivity, better use of resources, and ultimately, improved efficiency. Additionally, less government interference can lead to more accountability and transparency, as public corporations are given more autonomy to manage their affairs in a responsible manner.

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The extent to which citizens accept the institutions, officials, and activities of their government is known as legitimacy. It refers to the perception that the government has the right to rule and exercise authority over the citizens. Legitimacy is essential for a government to maintain stability and order in society. When citizens view their government as legitimate, they are more likely to follow its laws and regulations voluntarily. Conversely, if citizens perceive their government as illegitimate, they may resist its authority and challenge its power. Legitimacy is often earned through the democratic process, including free and fair elections and respect for human rights.

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Taxation as a feature of Indirect Rule served as a source of revenue for colonial administration. Indirect Rule was a system of governance used by colonial powers, where they used pre-existing local structures of governance and traditional rulers to rule their colonies. Taxation was one of the key tools used by colonial powers to raise revenue to fund their administration. Taxes were imposed on various goods and services, and the revenue generated was used to fund the salaries of colonial officials, maintain infrastructure, and support other colonial activities. Thus, taxation was an important feature of Indirect Rule as it allowed the colonial administration to sustain its operations and maintain its grip on power.

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An open market economy is a unique feature of capitalism. In an open market economy, the production and distribution of goods and services are determined by the interaction of supply and demand in a competitive market. It is characterized by private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and the free exchange of goods and services in the market. The government’s role in such an economy is usually limited to providing a framework of laws and regulations that ensures fair competition and protects property rights. Capitalism encourages entrepreneurship, innovation, and economic growth, but it can also lead to income inequality and market failures if left unchecked.

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A capitalist state is one in which private individuals control the economy. This means that private individuals or companies own and control the means of production and distribution, such as factories, businesses, and natural resources. The government in a capitalist state does not control these things, although it may regulate them to some extent. The workers in a capitalist state may or may not be exploited, depending on factors such as the labor laws and the power dynamics between employers and employees. However, exploitation is generally seen as a common feature of capitalist economies. Finally, there is usually a class struggle in a capitalist state, as different classes of people have different levels of economic power and influence.

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The principle of rule of law was popularized by A.V. Dicey. Dicey was a British jurist and constitutional theorist who lived in the 19th century. He wrote a book titled "Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution" in which he outlined the principles of the rule of law. According to Dicey, the rule of law means that no one is above the law and everyone, including government officials, must obey the law. He argued that the rule of law is essential for protecting individual rights and ensuring a fair and just society. Dicey's ideas have had a significant influence on the development of constitutional law and the rule of law in many countries around the world.

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Under the British Crown Colony system of administration, the head of the executive council was the Governor-General. The Governor-General was the representative of the British monarch in the colony, and he had executive authority over the colony. He was responsible for appointing the members of the executive council, which advised him on matters of governance. The head of the executive council was usually the Governor-General, although sometimes it was the chief minister or the head of government business.

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Among the given options, "cognitive orientation" is a component of political culture. Cognitive orientation refers to the beliefs, attitudes, and values that individuals hold about politics and government. It includes their understanding of the role of government, their views on specific policies and issues, and their level of trust in political institutions. These orientations are shaped by a variety of factors, such as family upbringing, education, and socialization experiences, and can vary widely between individuals and societies. Therefore, studying cognitive orientation is an essential component of understanding a society's political culture.

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Political socialization refers to the process of teaching and learning political culture. Political culture is the shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that characterize a society and guide political activity. Political socialization can occur through various means, such as family, education, media, peers, and religious institutions. The goal is to impart an understanding of how the political system works and the norms that govern it. By learning political culture, individuals can participate in the political process and make informed decisions about governance. Therefore, the correct option is "socialization".

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International laws place limitations to the application of sovereignty in a state. Sovereignty refers to the supreme power of a state to govern itself without any external interference. However, in today's globalized world, states are bound by international laws and treaties which limit their ability to exercise sovereignty. For example, a state may be bound by international human rights laws which limit its ability to mistreat its citizens or by environmental agreements which limit its ability to pollute the environment. Thus, the application of sovereignty is limited by international laws which are recognized by states as being binding upon them.

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The manor is a unique feature of feudalism. Feudalism was a political and economic system that emerged in medieval Europe. It was characterized by a hierarchical system of land ownership and obligations. The manor was a self-sufficient economic unit that was owned by a lord and worked by peasants. The lord provided protection for the peasants, who in turn worked the land and paid tribute to the lord in the form of labor, goods, or money. The manor was a key feature of feudalism as it formed the basis of the feudal economic system.

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Foreign domination by a group of people for social and economic benefits is known as colonialism. Colonialism involves the control of a weaker country or territory by a stronger country, often for the purpose of exploiting the weaker country's resources, labor, and markets. This can involve political, economic, and cultural domination, as well as the displacement and subjugation of the indigenous population.

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A basic principle of democracy is the rule by the majority and the protection of the minority. This means that in a democratic system of government, decisions are made based on the majority's will, but the rights and interests of minorities are also protected. The majority rule ensures that the will of the people is reflected in government decisions, while the protection of the minority ensures that the rights of all citizens, regardless of their political views, are respected and upheld. This principle ensures that everyone has a voice in the decision-making process, and that the government represents the will of the people as a whole, not just a particular group or elite. The other options listed are not basic principles of democracy, as they either exclude certain groups or focus on specific political structures or organizations.

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Setting up of a Constituent Assembly is a process in the transition from military to civil rule. A Constituent Assembly is a body of elected representatives that is tasked with the responsibility of drafting or revising a country's constitution. In the context of a transition from military to civil rule, setting up a Constituent Assembly is an important step towards creating a democratic and civilian government. The assembly can ensure that the constitution is amended to remove clauses that give the military excessive powers and provide for free and fair elections. This can help to create a stable and peaceful democratic system. Therefore, out of the options given, setting up of a Constituent Assembly is the process in the transition from military to civil rule.

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The ability to enforce obedience is known as power. Power refers to the ability to influence or control the behavior of individuals or groups. It can be obtained through various means such as physical force, wealth, knowledge, status, or authority. In politics, power is often associated with the government or the state, which has the legitimate authority to enforce obedience through laws and regulations. The possession of power can bring about various advantages, such as the ability to protect oneself or one's interests, but it can also be used to oppress or exploit others.

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A unique feature of a state is organized laws. A state is a political entity that has a defined territory, a permanent population, and a government with the power to make and enforce laws. The government's ability to enforce laws and provide order is what sets a state apart from other types of social organizations. Without organized laws, a state would be unable to maintain order and protect the rights of its citizens. The laws help to regulate social behavior and provide a framework for resolving disputes and conflicts in a peaceful manner.

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The primary function of government in a state is to maintain law and order. This means that the government is responsible for creating and enforcing laws, ensuring the safety of citizens, and protecting their rights. In order to achieve this, governments may employ police forces, courts, and other institutions to maintain peace and stability within the state. While governments may also provide a range of other services to citizens, such as transportation and social welfare programs, their primary responsibility is to ensure the safety and security of the people they govern.

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Communalism is the political concept that promotes sharing and cooperation in a society. Communalism emphasizes the importance of community ownership and control of resources and decision-making processes. In a communal society, individuals work together for the common good and share the benefits and burdens of society equally. This stands in contrast to capitalism, which emphasizes individual ownership and competition, and aristocracy and oligarchy, which emphasize the rule of a privileged few.

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A function of a head of state is to receive foreign dignitaries. The head of state is a symbolic representation of the state itself and acts as its highest representative in matters of diplomacy, foreign relations, and protocol. As such, receiving foreign dignitaries is one of the essential functions of a head of state. It involves welcoming and entertaining visiting foreign leaders, ambassadors, or other official representatives of foreign countries or organizations. This function helps to foster good relations between the host country and other nations, as well as to showcase the host country's culture and hospitality.

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Popular sovereignty is a political concept that means ultimate political power resides with the people. This means that the people have the authority to govern themselves through the decisions they make, either directly or through their elected representatives. Therefore, the answer to the question is the electorate, which refers to the body of people entitled to vote in an election, as they are the ones who have the power to determine the course of a nation's governance through their votes.

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The lowest in the hierarchy of a feudal system is the serfs. Serfs were peasants who were tied to the land they worked on and were under the control of a lord. They were considered the property of the lord and had few, if any, rights. They were obligated to work on the lord's land, pay rent, and provide military service. In exchange, the lord provided protection and allowed them to work the land. Knights and nobles were higher in the feudal hierarchy as they held more power and had more privileges.

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A communist system recognizes the need of the collective community rather than that of an individual. It seeks to create a classless society where there is no division of labour and resources are equally distributed among all members of the society. In a communist system, the means of production are owned and controlled by the state, and economic decisions are made by the central government. The goal of communism is to create a society in which everyone is equal and all needs are met through collective ownership and control of resources.

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The political system that discourages socialism is fascism. Fascism is a far-right political ideology that believes in a strong central government, authoritarianism, and the suppression of individual freedoms. It promotes extreme nationalism and often utilizes propaganda and force to maintain control. Socialism, on the other hand, advocates for social ownership of the means of production and distribution of wealth, with an emphasis on equal distribution of resources. These two ideologies are fundamentally opposed, and fascist regimes have historically been known for their suppression of socialist movements and ideas.

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The institution connected with law adjudication is the judiciary. The judiciary is one of the three arms of government responsible for interpreting and enforcing the laws of the land. The judiciary is made up of judges and magistrates who are appointed to preside over court cases, interpret the law, and ensure justice is served. They listen to evidence presented in court, weigh the facts of the case, and make decisions or judgments based on the law. The judiciary is an important institution in any democracy because it provides a check on the other branches of government, ensuring that their actions are in line with the law and protecting the rights of citizens.

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Political authority refers to the legitimate right to exercise political power over a particular group or society. It involves the ability to make and enforce decisions that affect the members of that group or society. Political authority can be acquired through various means, such as election, appointment, or inheritance, and it is typically accompanied by certain legal or constitutional powers that allow the exercise of that authority. The legitimacy of political authority depends on a variety of factors, such as popular acceptance, adherence to legal or constitutional norms, and the ability to provide effective governance.

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Feudalism is a social and economic system that was prevalent in medieval Europe. A common feature of feudalism is hierarchical land ownership between the lords and the serfs. The lords were the owners of the land and the serfs were bound to the land, which they worked in exchange for protection and security provided by the lord. The lord provided land, protection, and justice to the serfs, who in turn paid rents, taxes, and other dues to the lord. This relationship was characterized by a strict hierarchy, with the lord at the top, followed by the vassals, knights, and serfs at the bottom. The ownership of land was a key aspect of this system, and the hierarchy was maintained through strict rules and regulations that governed the relations between the lords and the serfs.

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The functions of the state are achieved through organs of government. Organs of government are the institutions and bodies that carry out the functions of the state. These organs include the legislature, executive, and judiciary. The legislature makes laws, the executive enforces laws, and the judiciary interprets laws. These organs of government work together to ensure the smooth running of the state and the provision of services to its citizens. Examples of services provided by the state include security, education, healthcare, and infrastructure. The functions of the state are critical in maintaining order and promoting the welfare of the citizens.

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The characteristic that is not associated with confederation is: "Sovereignty resides in the centre." In a confederation, sovereignty is vested in the constituent units (states, provinces, or territories), and not in the central government. The central government has limited powers, and the constituent units have more autonomy in decision-making. The other characteristics of a confederation include the right to secede, autonomous units that are more powerful than the centre, and decisions are taken through an agreement between the centre and the constituent units.

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The objective of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is to promote economic development among member states. This regional organization was established in 1975 with the aim of promoting economic cooperation and integration among West African countries. Its main goal is to create a common market in the region, increase trade, and promote economic development. ECOWAS also works towards achieving political stability, peace, and security in West Africa by mediating in conflicts and promoting good governance. However, its primary objective remains economic integration and development.

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Plurality system is not a form of proportional representation. In plurality system, the candidate with the highest number of votes in a given constituency is declared the winner, regardless of whether or not the candidate has received an absolute majority of votes. This system does not take into account the proportion of votes received by each party or candidate, and does not ensure that the final composition of the parliament or assembly is proportional to the overall preferences of the voters. In contrast, the other three systems listed - Alternative vote, Second ballot, and List system - are all forms of proportional representation that attempt to ensure a fairer distribution of seats based on the proportion of votes received by each party or candidate.

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The study of government in school is important because it helps students to learn about their rights and responsibilities as citizens, understand how government works and how it affects their daily lives. It also helps them to develop critical thinking skills, become informed and engaged citizens, and actively participate in their communities. By learning about the principles of democracy, the rule of law, and the importance of civic engagement, students can become better prepared to make informed decisions, advocate for their beliefs, and contribute to the development of a just and democratic society.

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The concept of sovereignty was propounded by Jean Bodin. Bodin was a French philosopher and political theorist who lived in the 16th century. He defined sovereignty as the absolute and perpetual power of a state to command obedience from its subjects within its territorial jurisdiction. Bodin's ideas on sovereignty were influential in the development of modern political thought and became an important concept in the establishment of the modern nation-state system.

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The body charged with the responsibility of preparing a new constitution in a country is the constituent assembly. A constituent assembly is a body of elected or appointed individuals who are charged with the responsibility of drafting or adopting a new constitution. The constituent assembly is usually made up of representatives of various interest groups, political parties, and other stakeholders in the society, who come together to deliberate on the fundamental principles, values, and norms that should guide the governance of the country. The constituent assembly is a critical part of the constitutional reform process, as it ensures that the views and aspirations of the people are reflected in the new constitution.

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The highest stage of socialism is communism. Communism is a political ideology and economic system in which the means of production are collectively owned and controlled by the community as a whole. In a communist society, resources are distributed based on the needs of the people, rather than the accumulation of wealth by individuals or corporations. The ultimate goal of communism is the establishment of a classless society in which all individuals have equal access to resources and opportunities.

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Power is transferred into authority through legitimacy. In political science, power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of people. On the other hand, authority is the right to exercise power or give orders. Legitimacy is the recognition by the people that the authority of a particular person or government is valid and justified. It is the acceptance of the right of a person or government to wield power, and it comes from the people who are governed. When power is accepted as legitimate, it is transformed into authority. Therefore, legitimacy is a key factor in the transformation of power into authority.

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In the pre-colonial era, a chief could be deposed if he persistently neglected the advice of his elders. In traditional African societies, the chief was not an absolute ruler but was expected to consult and work closely with his council of elders who represented various groups and interests in the community. If the chief failed to heed the advice of these elders and acted against the interests of the community, he could be removed from office. This was seen as a way of maintaining balance and ensuring that the chief remained accountable to the people he was supposed to lead.

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The French policy of Assimilation aimed at turning Africans in the colonies into black Frenchmen by making them adopt French language, culture, laws and citizenship. The French later abandoned or greatly modified this policy for the following reasons:

1. Cultural resistance of Africans: Africans were deeply attached to their own languages, religion, customs and traditions and refused to abandon them for French culture, so the policy could not succeed on a large scale.
2. Opposition from French businessmen and settlers: French merchants and settlers objected to granting Africans equal status and citizenship, fearing competition and loss of their privileged position.
3. Huge cost and impracticability: assimilating millions of Africans fully into French civilisation, with the schools, resources and administration it required, was too expensive and practically impossible.
4. Fear of political consequences: full assimilation would entitle large numbers of Africans to send representatives to the French Parliament, and the French feared being outnumbered and losing control of their own legislature.
5. Racial prejudice: many French people did not really believe that Africans could ever become the equals of Frenchmen, so they were unwilling to extend genuine equality to the colonised peoples.
6. Vastness of the territories and small assimilated population: the French West African territories were too large and populous, while only a tiny number of Africans (mainly in the Four Communes of Senegal) had been assimilated, showing the policy was unworkable on a wide scale.

For these reasons the French replaced assimilation with the policy of Association, which allowed Africans to retain much of their own culture while co-operating with French rule.

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Government is the machinery or institution through which the state carries out its functions and manages the affairs of the society. Six functions of government in a state are:

1. Maintenance of law and order: government makes and enforces laws and, through the police and courts, maintains peace, order and security within the state.
2. Defence of the state: government protects the country against external aggression and safeguards its territorial integrity through the armed forces.
3. Provision of social amenities and services: government provides essential services such as education, health care, roads, water, electricity and other infrastructure for the welfare of citizens.
4. Regulation of the economy: government manages and directs the economy through policies on taxation, spending, currency, trade and employment to promote economic growth and stability.
5. Protection of the rights and liberties of citizens: government guarantees and protects the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the people.
6. Conduct of external/foreign relations: government represents the state in its dealings with other countries, enters into treaties and promotes the interests of the state abroad.

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Although the rule of law is a cherished democratic principle, its full application is limited by a number of factors:

1. Legal immunity of certain officials: office holders such as the President, Vice-President, Governors and Deputy Governors enjoy immunity from prosecution while in office, which conflicts with equality before the law.
2. Diplomatic immunity: foreign diplomats and ambassadors are exempt from the ordinary laws and courts of the host country, so they cannot be tried like ordinary citizens.
3. State of emergency: during an emergency the government may suspend some rights and detain persons without the normal legal process, thereby curtailing the rule of law.
4. Delegated legislation: the power given to the executive and its agencies to make subsidiary laws and regulations allows government to act in ways that limit the ordinary operation of the law.
5. Preventive detention and special powers: laws that permit detention without trial, and special powers granted to security agencies, restrict the liberty guaranteed by the rule of law.
6. Ignorance and poverty of citizens: many citizens are unaware of their legal rights or too poor to afford the cost of litigation, so they cannot enforce the rule of law in practice.
7. Discretionary powers of the police and administrators: the wide discretion exercised by the police and public officials can be abused, undermining equal treatment under the law.

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(a) Concept of political participation

Political participation refers to the various ways in which citizens involve themselves in the political affairs and decision-making processes of their state. It covers all the voluntary activities through which members of a society take part in choosing their leaders and in influencing the formation and conduct of government policy. Active political participation is a mark of a healthy democracy, since it enables the people to hold government accountable and to make their wishes known.

(b) Four methods of political participation

1. Voting in elections: registering and casting one's vote to choose leaders and representatives at local, state and national levels.
2. Membership of political parties: joining a political party and taking part in its activities, campaigns and mobilisation of support.
3. Contesting for elective office: standing as a candidate for a political position and seeking to be elected into public office.
4. Attending political rallies, meetings and discussions: taking part in campaigns, public debates and community meetings where political issues are discussed.

Other methods include holding public/political office, membership of pressure groups, and lawful demonstrations or petitions to influence government.

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Taking Nigeria as the example, the major objectives of its foreign policy are:

1. Promotion and protection of the national interest: to safeguard the sovereignty, territorial integrity, security and independence of the country in its dealings with other states.
2. Promotion of African unity and integration: to work for the unity, co-operation and development of Africa, which is regarded as the centre-piece of Nigeria's foreign policy, through bodies such as the AU and ECOWAS.
3. Promotion of world peace and international co-operation: to support the peaceful settlement of disputes, contribute to international peacekeeping and co-operate with other nations through the United Nations and other bodies.
4. Promotion of the economic well-being of the country: to attract foreign investment, expand trade and secure economic and technical assistance for national development.

Other objectives include the defence of the dignity and rights of black people worldwide, respect for the sovereign equality of states, and non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations.

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The Civil Service Commission (or Public Service Commission) is an independent body established to manage personnel matters in the civil/public service and to insulate it from political interference. Four major functions are:

1. Recruitment and appointment: it recruits, selects and appoints suitably qualified persons into the various offices of the civil/public service on merit.
2. Promotion and advancement: it recommends and approves the promotion and advancement of civil servants based on merit, seniority and performance.
3. Discipline of civil servants: it exercises disciplinary control over officers, including the power to query, suspend, demote or dismiss those who misconduct themselves.
4. Postings, transfers and conditions of service: it handles the posting and transfer of officers and advises government on the conditions of service, welfare and general regulation of the service.

It also safeguards the neutrality and professionalism of the service by protecting officers from arbitrary political interference.

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A two-party system is a system in which two major political parties dominate the political scene and alternate in the control of government, although other small parties may exist. Examples are found in the United States (Democrats and Republicans) and Britain (Conservative and Labour).

Merits of a two-party system

1. Political stability: it produces a clear majority party that forms a strong government, avoiding the frequent crises associated with coalitions.
2. Clear choice for voters: the electorate has a simple and clear choice between two alternative programmes and sets of leaders.
3. Effective opposition: the party out of power provides a strong, organised opposition that checks the government and offers itself as a ready alternative.
4. Reduced ethnic and sectional tension: because each party must appeal broadly to win, it tends to moderate extreme sectional demands and promote national unity.

Demerits of a two-party system

1. Limited choice: voters are restricted to only two real options, which may not reflect the full range of opinion in the country.
2. Neglect of minorities: the interests and views of small groups and minor parties may be ignored or under-represented.
3. Dictatorship of the ruling party: the majority party may become overbearing and impose its will, since it controls both the executive and the legislature.
4. Sharp division and rivalry: intense competition between the two parties can polarise the society into two hostile camps.

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(a) Four features of the 1979 Republican Constitution

1. Presidential system of government: it introduced an executive president who was both Head of State and Head of Government, replacing the parliamentary system of the First Republic.
2. Federalism: it retained a federal structure with a division of powers between the federal government and the states through exclusive, concurrent and residual lists.
3. Separation of powers with checks and balances: the executive, legislature and judiciary were made separate arms, each checking the others to prevent abuse of power.
4. Fundamental human rights: it entrenched the fundamental rights of citizens, which were justiciable and enforceable in the courts.

Other features included a bicameral legislature (Senate and House of Representatives), an independent judiciary, and the Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy.

(b) Two ways the President could be removed from office

1. Impeachment by the National Assembly: the President could be removed for gross misconduct through the impeachment process, requiring an investigation and a two-thirds (indeed a very high) majority vote of both houses of the National Assembly.
2. Permanent incapacity or medical incapability: the President could be removed if declared, through the prescribed medical procedure, to be permanently unable to discharge the functions of the office by reason of physical or mental infirmity.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Under colonial rule, the powers and authority of the traditional rulers in West Africa were greatly reduced in the following six ways:

1. Loss of sovereignty and supreme authority: the traditional rulers ceased to be sovereign; ultimate authority now lay with the colonial government, and they ruled only as subordinates of the colonial administration.
2. Appointment and deposition by colonial officers: the colonial government assumed the power to appoint, recognise, discipline and even depose traditional rulers, so that a chief who defied the government could be removed.
3. Loss of control over the army and defence: the traditional rulers lost their war-making powers and control over armed forces, as defence and security became the responsibility of the colonial government.
4. Loss of judicial powers: the establishment of colonial courts and the appointment of colonial judges took away much of the judicial authority of the chiefs, whose native courts were subordinated to the colonial legal system.
5. Loss of law-making powers: the power to make laws passed to the colonial legislature and the Governor, so the chiefs could no longer make binding laws for their people on their own.
6. Loss of control over taxation and revenue: the colonial government took over the assessment and collection of taxes and the control of public revenue, reducing the financial independence of the traditional rulers.

Other effects included the imposition of the alien policy of indirect rule (which turned some chiefs into mere agents), and the creation of new elites and warrant chiefs who undermined the prestige of legitimate rulers.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Military intervention in politics can be discouraged and prevented in the following ways:

1. Good and accountable governance: civilian leaders should govern well, provide for the welfare of the people, avoid corruption and misrule, and give the military no genuine excuse to seize power.
2. Adequate welfare and professionalisation of the armed forces: soldiers should be well paid, well equipped and well trained, and made to imbibe a professional ethic that keeps them loyal to the constitution and out of politics.
3. Free, fair and credible elections: conducting transparent elections and respecting their results removes the political tension and disputes that often invite the military to intervene.
4. Civilian (democratic) control of the military: the armed forces should be firmly subordinated to the elected civilian authority, with clear constitutional provisions confining them to defence duties.
5. Strengthening democratic institutions and the rule of law: an independent judiciary, a vibrant legislature, a free press and respect for the constitution build public confidence in civilian rule and reduce the appeal of coups.

Additional measures include political education and mobilisation of the citizens to resist and condemn coups, and severe legal punishment for those who attempt to overthrow constitutional government.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Local governments in Nigeria are the third tier of government meant to bring development to the grassroots, but they are confronted by many problems. Six of these are:

1. Inadequate finance: local governments lack sufficient funds; their internally generated revenue is small and the statutory allocations they receive are often too little to meet their responsibilities.
2. Undue interference by state governments: state governments interfere in local government affairs, control their funds through the joint state-local government account, and sometimes dissolve elected councils, thereby undermining their autonomy.
3. Corruption and embezzlement: many local government officials divert or embezzle public funds meant for development, leaving little for services.
4. Shortage of qualified and skilled personnel: local governments find it difficult to attract and retain competent, qualified staff, since skilled people prefer to work at state and federal levels.
5. Political instability and undemocratic practices: frequent dissolution of councils, use of unelected caretaker committees and electoral malpractices weaken local administration.
6. Poor infrastructure and inadequate facilities: lack of office accommodation, equipment, vehicles and other working materials hampers the effective performance of local governments.

Other problems include over-dependence on the federal and state governments, and the wide gap between the large populations they serve and the limited resources available.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent states, most of which were formerly under British rule. Member states derive the following benefits from the organisation:

1. Economic and financial assistance: members receive aid, loans, grants and technical assistance, for example through the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, which supports development projects.
2. Promotion of trade among members: the Commonwealth encourages trade and economic co-operation among its members, sometimes on preferential terms, thereby boosting their economies.
3. Educational and cultural benefits: members enjoy scholarships, exchange of teachers and students, sharing of educational facilities and cultural exchanges, such as the Commonwealth Scholarship scheme.
4. Forum for consultation and co-operation: through meetings such as the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), members discuss common problems and co-ordinate their positions on world issues.
5. Promotion of democracy, good governance and human rights: the Commonwealth encourages democratic values and can help resolve political crises and monitor elections in member states.
6. Sports and social interaction: the Commonwealth Games and other joint activities foster friendship, unity and healthy competition among the peoples of member states.

Members also gain from technical training, health and agricultural programmes, and the diplomatic support that comes from belonging to a large international body.