WAEC SSCE - Geography - 2014

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Coal and mineral oil are usually found embedded in sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, which have been compacted and cemented over time. The organic matter of dead plants and animals gets trapped in the sediments during their deposition and gets buried under subsequent layers of sediment. The intense heat and pressure caused by the overlying layers of rock and sediment turn the organic matter into coal or oil. Therefore, coal and mineral oil are usually found in sedimentary rocks.

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The angular distance of a point on the Earth's surface measured in degrees from the centre of the Earth east or west of the Greenwich Meridian is known as longitude. Longitude lines run from the North Pole to the South Pole, and the prime meridian, or zero longitude, runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London. Longitude is used together with latitude to specify the geographic coordinates of a location on the Earth's surface, and it is an essential element in navigation and timekeeping.

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The concentration of industries in urban centres of developing countries is due to several reasons, such as high demand, availability of labor, and presence of infrastructural facilities. However, one of the following options is not a reason for this concentration of industries, and this is "location of raw materials." Industries in developing countries often depend on imported raw materials, which are usually transported from the ports to the urban centres, where the industries are located. Therefore, the location of raw materials is not a significant factor in the concentration of industries in urban centres of developing countries.

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The major source of power for most terrestrial ecosystems is solar energy. The sun is the ultimate source of energy for almost all life on Earth. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which is then passed on to herbivores, and then to carnivores, in a series of interconnected food chains. Solar energy also drives weather patterns and climate, which are important factors in determining the distribution and productivity of different ecosystems. While other sources of energy like geothermal, hydroelectric and nuclear power can be important for human societies, they are not significant sources of energy for natural ecosystems.

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Rain clouds develop in the troposphere of the Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and it extends from the Earth's surface up to an altitude of approximately 12 km. It is the layer where weather occurs, and it contains the majority of the Earth's clouds. The temperature in the troposphere decreases with height, which creates the conditions necessary for water vapor to condense and form clouds. Rain clouds develop when the condensed water droplets in clouds become large enough to fall to the ground as precipitation. So, the correct answer is Troposphere.

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Sills, dykes, and batholiths are examples of intrusive volcanic landforms. Intrusive volcanic landforms are formed when magma solidifies beneath the Earth's surface. Sills are horizontal sheets of solidified magma that have intruded between layers of rock, while dykes are vertical or diagonal sheets of magma that have intruded through existing cracks in the rock. Batholiths are large masses of solidified magma that have pushed their way up into the Earth's crust, forming a dome-shaped structure. These intrusive volcanic landforms are typically made up of igneous rocks such as granite, gabbro, and diorite.

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The smallest form of settlement is a farmstead. A farmstead is a type of settlement where a single family or a small group of families live together in a single farm. The settlement is usually located in rural or agricultural areas, and the houses are built close to the land that is being farmed. The farmstead may also include a small shop, a church or a school. Compared to a village, town or metropolis, the size of a farmstead is much smaller, and the population is usually limited to a few families.

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The correct answer is "an entreport". An entreport is a port that specializes in receiving and distributing goods to other nations. It is a hub for international trade, where goods are imported and then re-exported to other countries. Entreports are usually located in strategic locations, such as at the junction of major shipping routes, and have extensive facilities for warehousing, customs clearance, and transportation.

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The concept of environmental balance refers to the idea that all living and non-living components of an ecosystem are interrelated and interdependent, and that a disturbance to one component can have cascading effects throughout the system. The hydrological cycle, carbon cycle, and food chain/food web are all examples of natural processes that contribute to environmental balance by regulating the flow of water, carbon, and energy through the ecosystem. However, the earthquake cycle is not typically considered as part of environmental balance because it is a geological process that is not directly related to the interactions between living and non-living components of an ecosystem. Earthquakes may have indirect effects on the environment, such as causing landslides or tsunamis that can impact ecosystems, but they are not a natural process that contributes to the balance of the ecosystem itself.

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The world's high population growth rate brings about several problems such as pressure on social amenities, inadequate food, and housing problems. Adequate medical facilities, on the other hand, are not considered a problem associated with high population growth rate. Thus, the answer is "adequate medical facilities."

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The nearest planet to the sun is Mercury. It is the smallest planet in the solar system and the closest planet to the sun. It is named after the Roman messenger of the gods, Mercury, because it moves across the sky faster than any other planet. It takes only 88 Earth days to complete its orbit around the sun. Due to its proximity to the sun, the surface of Mercury can reach extremely high temperatures during the day and drop to very low temperatures at night.

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A plateau that is enclosed by two fold mountains is called an intermont plateau. This type of plateau is formed when two parallel mountain ranges are formed and the land between them is uplifted and flattened, creating a plateau. The word "intermont" means "between mountains," so an intermont plateau is essentially a plateau that is located between two mountain ranges. These plateaus can be found in many parts of the world and can have unique features and ecosystems.

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Swallow holes and disappearing streams are usually associated with limestone regions. This is because limestone is a soluble rock that can be easily eroded by weak acids, such as carbonic acid, which is found in rainwater. Over time, this erosion can create underground cavities and channels, which can cause the ground to collapse and form swallow holes. Disappearing streams can also occur in limestone regions when streams flow over porous limestone and then disappear underground through cracks and fissures.

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An example of an organically formed sedimentary rock is coal. Coal is formed from the remains of dead plants and animals that have been buried and subjected to high pressure and temperature over millions of years. As the organic material decays, it forms peat, which is then compressed into coal. Coal is a valuable energy resource and is used as fuel for power generation and other industrial processes.

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Leather works, carving, and cloth weaving are examples of local craft industry. This type of industry involves the production of goods using traditional methods and techniques that have been passed down through generations. Local craft industries often use locally sourced materials and have a strong cultural and artistic influence. These industries are typically small-scale and often involve individual or family-based production. The products produced by local craft industries are often unique and of high quality, and they can be important sources of income and cultural heritage for communities.

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The correct answer is hazard. An environmental hazard refers to any event or phenomenon that has the potential to cause harm to humans, animals, plants, or the environment. It can be caused by natural disasters like hurricanes, earthquakes, floods, or by human activities such as pollution, deforestation, or industrial accidents. These hazards can pose serious threats to the lives and properties of people and can cause significant damage to the environment. Therefore, it is important to identify and manage environmental hazards to minimize their impact and protect the well-being of people and the environment.

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Lines on maps joining places of the same temperature above sea level are called isotherms. Isotherms are used to show areas of equal temperature on weather maps. The prefix "iso" means "equal," and "therm" refers to temperature. Isotherms are drawn as lines that connect points of equal temperature, and they help us visualize temperature patterns across regions. The closer the isotherms are to each other, the greater the temperature change over a short distance. So, isotherms are an important tool for meteorologists and climatologists to study and predict weather patterns.

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Lignite is a fossil fuel. It is a type of coal that was formed from compressed and decayed plant material that accumulated in swamps and bogs millions of years ago. As such, it is considered a non-renewable resource because it takes millions of years to form. When lignite is burned, it releases energy in the form of heat and light, making it a valuable source of energy for electricity generation and heating.

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The Alps, Himalayas, and Rocky Mountains are examples of fold mountains. Fold mountains are formed due to the collision of tectonic plates. When two plates collide, the pressure causes the edges to buckle and fold, creating mountains. The folding of the rock layers results in a series of ridges and valleys that form the mountain range. The Alps, Himalayas, and Rocky Mountains were formed due to the collision of the African and Eurasian plates, the Indian and Eurasian plates, and the North American and Pacific plates, respectively.

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Air transport has the advantage of speedy movement of goods and passengers. This means that air transport is faster than other modes of transportation like road and sea transport. It can cover large distances in a short period of time, which makes it suitable for emergency situations or for transporting perishable goods that require speedy delivery. Additionally, air transport can also provide a direct connection between two destinations that are far apart, eliminating the need for transfers or multiple modes of transport. Overall, air transport is an efficient and effective mode of transportation for goods and passengers that require fast delivery.

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The line of latitude that divides the earth into two hemispheres is the Equator. The Equator is an imaginary circle that is equidistant from the North Pole and the South Pole, located at 0 degrees latitude. The earth is divided into the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere by the Equator, as well as into the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn are lines of latitude located at 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator, respectively, while the Antarctic Circle is located at 66.5 degrees south of the equator.

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The feature formed by cooling of molten magma across the bedding plane is called a sill. A sill is a type of intrusive igneous rock that forms when magma is injected into a horizontal crack in the surrounding rock and then cools and solidifies. As the magma cools, it forms a flat sheet-like body that is parallel to the layering of the existing rock. Sills can be seen as flat, tabular bodies of rock that cut through existing rock layers. They can range in thickness from a few centimeters to several meters, and can cover large areas. Sills are typically composed of coarse-grained rocks, such as granite, gabbro or dolerite, and are often associated with other intrusive features like dykes, batholiths and laccoliths.

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Quartzite, schist, and marble are all examples of metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks (either igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) that have been subjected to high pressure, temperature, or both. These conditions cause the minerals and texture of the original rock to change, forming a new rock with different physical and chemical properties. Quartzite, schist, and marble are all formed by different degrees of metamorphism, which is why they have distinct characteristics and are classified as separate types of metamorphic rock.

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The harmattan is best described as "dry and dusty". It is a season in West Africa that occurs from November to March characterized by dry and dusty trade winds blowing from the Sahara Desert towards the Gulf of Guinea. The winds bring dry and dusty air, which can reduce visibility, cause respiratory problems and affect transportation and agriculture in the region. Therefore, is the correct answer.

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Limestone areas are often dry because rainwater easily percolates through the porous limestone rocks. Limestone is a type of sedimentary rock that is formed from the accumulation of calcium carbonate shells and skeletons of marine organisms. This rock is highly porous and permeable, allowing water to easily flow through it. As a result, there is little surface water in limestone areas, and most of the water is stored underground in aquifers. This makes limestone areas prone to drought and often results in dry conditions. Therefore, the option that best explains why limestone areas are often dry is "Rain water percolates easily through limestone rocks".

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The correct answer is hydrosphere. The hydrosphere is the part of the Earth's surface that is covered by water, including oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water. It makes up about 71% of the Earth's surface and is essential to life on the planet. The hydrosphere is constantly moving and changing due to the water cycle, which involves evaporation, precipitation, and the flow of water from one place to another.

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When wet and dry bulb thermometers record the same temperature, it means that the air is saturated. Wet and dry bulb thermometers are used to measure relative humidity, which is the amount of moisture in the air compared to the maximum amount it can hold at a particular temperature. The wet bulb thermometer is wrapped in a wet wick, and the dry bulb thermometer is kept dry. As the water evaporates from the wet wick, it cools the wet bulb thermometer. The greater the difference in temperature between the wet and dry bulbs, the lower the relative humidity. When the air is fully saturated with water vapor, the evaporation of water from the wet bulb is minimized, and the temperatures of the two thermometers become the same. This means that the air cannot hold any more water vapor at that temperature, and the relative humidity is 100%.

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The export trade of most West African countries consists of primary products. Primary products refer to raw materials and commodities that are extracted or produced from natural resources, such as agricultural products, minerals, and petroleum. West African countries typically have economies that are heavily dependent on primary product exports, as they possess abundant natural resources. These countries may lack the infrastructure and technology required to process these primary products into finished goods, making it more economical to export them in their raw form. Therefore, primary products form the bulk of the export trade of most West African countries.

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Copper is the metal used extensively in the electrical industry. This is because copper is an excellent conductor of electricity, which means that it allows electric current to flow through it easily. Copper wires are used in the production of electrical cables and wiring due to their high conductivity, flexibility, and strength. Copper is also resistant to corrosion, which makes it a durable material for use in electrical applications. Due to these properties, copper has become an essential metal in the electrical industry.

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The measure of population concentration in a place is called population density. It refers to the number of people living in a particular area, usually expressed as the number of individuals per square kilometer or square mile. It is an important factor in understanding the social, economic, and environmental conditions of a place. Population density can provide insights into issues such as urbanization, resource allocation, and sustainability.

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One factor that can be used to differentiate between a village and a town is function. A village typically has a smaller population and is primarily agricultural, with most residents engaged in farming or other rural occupations. In contrast, a town is more urbanized, with a larger population engaged in a wider variety of occupations. The economic activities in a town are typically more diverse, and there is usually a greater concentration of commercial and administrative functions. Therefore, function is an important factor that can help distinguish between a village and a town.

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The nearest part of the ocean basin to the continent is called the continental shelf. It is the shallow and relatively flat extension of a continent that lies between the shoreline and the continental slope. The continental shelf is part of the continental crust and can extend hundreds of kilometers from the coastline. It is an important area for economic activities such as fishing, oil and gas exploration, and shipping. The depth of the continental shelf can vary greatly, with some areas being only a few meters deep, while others can be as deep as 200 meters.

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(a)(i) Four classes of towns based on their functions, with (ii) examples:

1. Administrative/capital towns: Their main function is government administration. Example - Abuja (Nigeria) or Washington D.C.
2. Industrial/manufacturing towns: Dominated by factories and manufacturing. Example - Aba or Kano (Nigeria); Detroit (USA).
3. Commercial/trading (port) towns: Centres of trade, banking and transport, often ports. Example - Lagos or Onitsha (Nigeria).
4. Mining towns: Grow around the extraction of minerals. Example - Jos (tin) or Enugu (coal) in Nigeria; Kitwe (Zambia).

(Other acceptable classes: educational towns e.g. Ibadan/Nsukka; religious towns e.g. Mecca; resort/tourist towns.)

(b) Ways in which rural and urban areas are interdependent:

1. Food supply: Rural areas supply food and agricultural raw materials to the urban areas, which depend on them for feeding.
2. Manufactured goods and services: Urban areas supply the rural areas with manufactured goods, machinery, medical and educational services.
3. Labour and market: Rural areas provide labour (migrants) to the towns, while the towns provide a market for rural produce.
4. Movement of ideas and capital: Urban centres channel money, technology and new ideas to rural areas, aiding rural development, while rural areas supply raw materials that sustain urban industry.

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(a) Nigeria under the given headings:

(i) Location: Nigeria lies in West Africa, roughly between latitudes 4°N and 14°N of the Equator and longitudes 3°E and 15°E of the Greenwich Meridian. It is bordered by the Republic of Benin (west), Niger (north), Chad (north-east), Cameroon (east), and the Atlantic Ocean/Gulf of Guinea (south).

(ii) Size: Nigeria has a total land area of about 923,768 square kilometres, making it one of the largest countries in West Africa, with a maximum extent of roughly 1,050 km north to south and 1,150 km east to west.

(b) Ways highlands are important to the economy of Nigeria:

1. Sources of rivers: Highlands such as the Jos Plateau and Eastern (Adamawa/Mambilla) highlands are the source of major rivers used for water supply and irrigation.
2. Hydro-electric power: Steep slopes and waterfalls on highland rivers provide sites for dams and HEP generation.
3. Mining: Highlands like the Jos Plateau are rich in minerals (tin, columbite), supporting mining.
4. Tourism and cool climate: The cool, healthy highland climate (e.g. Jos, Obudu) attracts tourists and resorts.
5. Agriculture: Highland areas support special crops (Irish potatoes, tea, vegetables) and grazing on their cooler slopes.

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(a) Factors accounting for the world's rapid population growth:

1. Fall in death rate: Improved medicine, immunisation, better nutrition and sanitation have greatly reduced deaths, especially infant mortality, so more people survive.
2. High birth rate: Early marriage, large-family preference and low use of family planning in many countries keep births high.
3. Advances in medical science: Control of epidemic diseases and better health care have lengthened life expectancy.
4. Improved food supply: Better farming methods and food distribution reduce famine and starvation.
5. Peace and stability with improved living conditions: Fewer major wars, along with better water supply and housing, allow populations to grow steadily.

(b) Problems of rapid population growth:

1. Food shortage: Food production may not match the growing population, causing hunger and malnutrition.
2. Unemployment: Jobs increase more slowly than the labour force, leaving many people unemployed.
3. Pressure on social services: Housing, schools, hospitals, water and power become overstretched.
4. Overcrowding and slums: Cities become congested, with slums, poor sanitation and rising crime.
5. Environmental degradation: Overuse of land, deforestation and pollution damage the environment and resources.

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(a) Outline map of Nigeria

(b) Characteristics of rivers in Nigeria

1. Most Nigerian rivers have a seasonal regime: their volume rises greatly in the rainy season and falls considerably in the dry season.
2. Many rivers are shallow and carry much silt, giving them a muddy appearance, especially during the rainy season.
3. Rapids and waterfalls occur along many river courses, particularly where rivers cross highland areas.

(c) Benefits of Kainji Lake to Nigeria

1. It generates hydro-electric power at Kainji Dam for homes and industries.
2. It provides fish and employment for fishermen and fish traders.

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(a) Characteristics of manufacturing industries in Tropical African countries:

1. Dominance of light/consumer industries: Most factories produce simple consumer goods (food, drinks, textiles, soap) rather than heavy machinery.
2. Processing of primary/agricultural raw materials: Industries mainly process local agricultural and mineral products (oil-milling, cotton ginning, cocoa processing).
3. Concentration in a few urban centres and ports: Industries cluster in large towns and coastal cities where power, labour and markets exist.
4. Small scale and low output: Firms are generally small, with limited capital and low productivity.
5. Heavy reliance on imported capital, technology and skilled labour: Machinery, spare parts, and often expertise are imported from abroad.

(b) Problems of manufacturing industries (in Nigeria):

1. Inadequate/unreliable power supply: Frequent electricity failures raise costs and disrupt production.
2. Shortage of capital: Insufficient finance limits expansion and modernisation.
3. Poor infrastructure: Bad roads, poor water supply and weak transport hinder movement of goods and materials.
4. Inadequate skilled manpower: Shortage of trained technicians and managers lowers efficiency.
5. Competition from imports and small local market: Cheap imported goods and low purchasing power restrict sales.

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(a) Sketch map of Nigeria showing cattle-rearing areas

The shaded and labelled areas are the Sokoto Plains in the north-west and the Mambilla Plateau in the east. Sokoto is a town in one of the cattle-rearing areas shown.

(b) Factors which encourage cattle rearing in Northern Nigeria

1. Availability of pasture: The Guinea and Sudan savanna belts have extensive natural grassland which provides fodder for cattle.
2. Low tsetse-fly infestation: Much of the dry northern savanna is unsuitable for tsetse flies, reducing trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness in cattle.
3. Favourable climate: Rainfall is relatively low and the climate is less humid. This reduces problems such as foot rot and allows cattle to move about easily.
4. Large areas of open land and experienced herders: The relatively sparse population leaves wide, fairly level grazing land. The Fulani have a long tradition and skill in cattle rearing.

(c) Reasons cattle rearing is less important in Southern Nigeria

1. The humid forest belt has many tsetse flies which transmit trypanosomiasis to cattle.
2. Heavy rainfall and high humidity encourage diseases, including foot rot.
3. Dense forest, thick vegetation and intensive crop farming leave little open land or good pasture for grazing, and often cause conflict between herders and crop farmers.