WAEC SSCE - Government - 1992

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The United Nations Day is celebrated on October 24th every year. This day marks the anniversary of the entry into force of the United Nations Charter in 1945. It is an occasion to celebrate and recognize the work of the United Nations in promoting peace, security, and development around the world. The day is celebrated with various events and activities that highlight the importance of the United Nations in addressing global issues and promoting international cooperation.

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"Egbe Omo Oduduwa" was a cultural association that sought the unity of the Yoruba people. It was founded in 1945 by a group of Yoruba students and professionals led by Chief Obafemi Awolowo. The aim of the association was to promote Yoruba culture and traditions and to unite the Yoruba people, who were spread across different regions and colonies in Nigeria. Although Egbe Omo Oduduwa was not a political party, it played a significant role in the formation of the Action Group, a political party that was later founded by Chief Obafemi Awolowo and other Yoruba leaders.

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The chairman of the UN Conciliation Commission on the 1960 Congo crisis was Dag Hammarskjold. He was the Secretary-General of the United Nations at the time, and he played a significant role in trying to resolve the conflict in the Congo. The Congo crisis began in 1960, after the country gained independence from Belgium. The country was in a state of political turmoil, and there was violence and instability throughout the country. The UN Conciliation Commission was established to help resolve the conflict, and Dag Hammarskjold was appointed as the chairman of the commission. He traveled to the Congo several times to negotiate with the different factions involved in the conflict, and he worked tirelessly to try to find a peaceful resolution. Despite his efforts, the conflict continued, and Hammarskjold tragically died in a plane crash in 1961 while on a peace mission to the Congo.

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Citizenship may be changed by renunciation, which means voluntarily giving up one's citizenship of a particular country. This can be done through a legal process, such as filling out a form or taking an oath. Citizenship cannot be changed by birth, as it is determined by the country in which one is born. Divorce, conviction, and employment do not typically have an effect on citizenship, although certain criminal convictions or employment in a foreign government may affect one's eligibility for citizenship in some countries.

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The principal official of the house who is not an elected parliamentarian is the Clerk. The Clerk of the House is a senior administrative officer who is responsible for managing the administrative and procedural aspects of the House of Representatives. Unlike the other officials mentioned in the options, the Clerk is not an elected parliamentarian, but rather a civil servant who is appointed to the position based on their qualifications and experience. The Speaker, Deputy Speaker, Leader, and Chief Whip, on the other hand, are all elected parliamentarians who hold leadership positions within the House. The Speaker presides over the House, while the Deputy Speaker assists the Speaker in his or her duties. The Leader is responsible for organizing the business of the House, and the Chief Whip ensures that members of the party attend important votes. Therefore, the correct answer is D, the Clerk.

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The right to direct and command people is authority. Authority refers to the right or power to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. It is the ability to control or influence others, typically because of one's position of power or legitimacy. In most cases, authority is conferred by law or by social conventions, such as through a formal appointment to a position of power, such as a manager or government official. The exercise of authority typically involves using power to make decisions and enforce rules and laws, which may involve the use of coercion or force if necessary. In short, authority is the right or power to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience, and it is usually conferred by law or social conventions.

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Nigeria's diplomatic representative in Britain is known as the High Commissioner. A High Commissioner is the equivalent of an Ambassador in countries that are part of the Commonwealth of Nations, such as Nigeria and Britain. The role of a High Commissioner is to represent their country's interests in the host country, foster good relations between the two countries, and engage in diplomatic negotiations on behalf of their government. The title "High Commissioner" is used instead of "Ambassador" in Commonwealth countries because of the shared history and cultural ties between these nations. While the term "Ambassador" implies a more distant and formal relationship, the term "High Commissioner" signifies a closer and more cordial relationship. Therefore, the correct answer is A, High Commissioner.

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The operation of a multi-party system often leads to the formation of a coalition government. This is because in a multi-party system, no single party is likely to win an outright majority of seats in the legislative body. As a result, parties may need to form alliances with each other to gain a parliamentary majority and form a government. Such alliances are known as coalition governments. In a coalition government, the parties that form the government usually have to compromise on their policy positions to accommodate the views of the other parties in the coalition. This can result in a more moderate and consensus-based approach to governance.

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One of the criticisms against the policy of assimilation was that it did not recognize African culture as good enough. Assimilation was a colonial policy pursued by the French in their West African territories, which aimed to make the colonies a part of France by assimilating the local population into French culture and society. However, one of the main criticisms of this policy was that it did not recognize African culture as good enough and sought to replace it with French culture. The French viewed their own culture as superior and believed that African cultures were inferior and needed to be replaced. This attitude led to the suppression of African languages, customs, and traditions, which were seen as obstacles to assimilation. As a result, the policy of assimilation was met with resistance and criticism from many African leaders and intellectuals who saw it as an attempt to erase their cultural heritage.

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The function of the executive arm of government is to implement and enforce laws, policies, and regulations made by the legislature. Therefore, the option that is not a function of the executive arm of government is "interpretation of law," which is a function of the judiciary. The judiciary is responsible for interpreting and enforcing the law, while the executive branch enforces the law.

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The resignation of Nnadi Azikiwe led to the disintegration of the Nigeria Youth Movement in 1941. The Nigeria Youth Movement was a nationalist organization founded in 1934 to advocate for the interests of educated Nigerians and to demand greater political representation and rights for Nigerians. Nnadi Azikiwe was one of the key figures in the organization and served as its secretary-general. However, in 1941, Azikiwe resigned from the organization following a disagreement with some of the other leaders over the direction and goals of the movement. His resignation led to a split in the organization and the formation of two rival factions, which weakened the movement and eventually led to its disintegration.

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In the parliamentary system of government, the ceremonial head of state is the President. However, it is important to note that the role of the President in a parliamentary system is largely ceremonial and symbolic, and the real power lies with the Prime Minister and the elected members of parliament. The President performs various ceremonial functions such as opening and closing parliament, receiving foreign ambassadors, and signing bills into law. The Prime Minister, on the other hand, is the head of government and has the responsibility of running the country and making major policy decisions.

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The 1976 local government reform was innovative because it harmonized the local government structure in Nigeria. Before the reform, there were various local government structures operating in different regions and states of Nigeria, which made it difficult to coordinate and manage local governance effectively. The 1976 reform introduced a uniform and standardized local government system across the country, with a two-tier structure of local government councils and local government areas. This made it easier to plan and implement development programs, coordinate governance and administrative functions, and ensure accountability and transparency at the local level. The reform also empowered councilors and gave them more responsibilities, and provided for the appointment of secretaries by council chairmen, which helped to improve local governance and service delivery in Nigeria.

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The option that hinders the expression of public opinion is the "Uniformed citizenry." When citizens have to conform to a particular uniformity, such as in a military or dictatorial regime, their ability to express their opinions and engage in free speech is limited. In such situations, expressing dissenting views or opinions can lead to punishment or retribution, including imprisonment or violence. This can stifle public opinion and undermine democracy, as citizens are not able to participate in meaningful political discourse and decision-making.

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A tax law typically emanates from a public bill that is proposed by a member of the legislative body, usually a member of the government or a member of the opposition party. The bill must go through several stages of review and debate in both houses of the legislative body, and amendments may be made to the original proposal. Once the bill has been passed by both houses of the legislative body, it is sent to the executive, which is usually the President or the Prime Minister, for their signature. The executive may either sign the bill into law or veto it, in which case it must go back to the legislative body for further review and potential revision. It is worth noting that tax laws can also be proposed by the executive, but they must still go through the same process of review and debate in the legislative body before they can be passed into law. In general, tax laws are intended to raise revenue for the government, and they may be used to fund various programs, projects, and services.

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In a confederation, more powers reside in the component units. A confederation is a form of government where several states or regions come together to form a loose alliance. In this type of government, the power is decentralized and the component units, which are the individual states or regions, have more autonomy and power than the central government. This means that the component units have more control over their own affairs, such as the ability to create laws and policies that are specific to their region or state. The central government in a confederation has limited powers and is usually responsible for managing only a few areas of governance that affect the entire confederation, such as foreign affairs or defense. Therefore, in a confederation, the component units have more powers compared to the central government, making them more independent in their decision-making processes.

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The Nigerian nationalists movement was greatly assisted by the trade unions. The trade unions played a crucial role in the struggle for independence in Nigeria by mobilizing workers and organizing protests and strikes. The trade unions were able to bring together people from different ethnic and religious backgrounds and provide a platform for them to voice their grievances against British colonial rule. The trade unions were also able to exert pressure on the colonial authorities by disrupting the economy through strikes and other forms of industrial action. This made it difficult for the British to govern the country effectively, and it helped to create a climate of instability that ultimately contributed to Nigeria's independence in 1960. Overall, the trade unions were a powerful force in the Nigerian nationalist movement, and their role in the struggle for independence should not be underestimated.

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The National Security Council was provided for in the 1979 constitution of Nigeria. The National Security Council is a body that advises the President of Nigeria on matters relating to national security, including defense, intelligence, and law enforcement. It was established in the 1979 constitution of Nigeria, which provided for its creation as a means of promoting national security and ensuring the safety and well-being of Nigerian citizens. The National Security Council is made up of the President, the Vice President, the Minister of Defense, the National Security Adviser, and other officials as appointed by the President. The council is responsible for formulating and implementing policies and strategies related to national security, and it plays a critical role in maintaining peace and stability in Nigeria.

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Nigeria contributed to the South African Liberation Fund because of her desire to eradicate racial discrimination in Africa. During the apartheid era in South Africa, Nigeria, along with other African countries, played an active role in supporting the anti-apartheid struggle. This was in line with Nigeria's foreign policy, which emphasized the promotion of African unity, liberation, and independence. As such, Nigeria contributed financially to the South African Liberation Fund to support the liberation movement in South Africa, which was fighting against apartheid, a system that promoted racial discrimination and segregation.

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The first Secretary-General of the Commonwealth was Arnold Smith. The Commonwealth is an association of 54 independent countries that were mostly former territories of the British Empire, and it was created in 1949. Arnold Smith, a Canadian diplomat, was appointed as the first Secretary-General of the Commonwealth in 1965, and he served in that role until 1975. During his tenure, Smith worked to promote cooperation and collaboration between Commonwealth member states, and he was instrumental in establishing the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation, which provided technical assistance to member states in areas such as agriculture, education, and health. Smith was also a strong advocate for democracy, human rights, and social justice, and he played a key role in expanding the Commonwealth to include new member states. Overall, Arnold Smith was a visionary leader who helped to shape the Commonwealth into the influential organization it is today.

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Indirect Rule is a system of local administration that makes use of Chiefs or traditional rulers in council. It was a colonial policy used by the British in some of their African colonies, including Nigeria, Ghana, and Uganda. Under the Indirect Rule system, the colonial government did not directly govern the people but instead relied on existing traditional rulers or appointed chiefs to govern on their behalf. The colonial government would provide support and oversight, but the day-to-day administration of local affairs was left in the hands of the traditional rulers or chiefs. The Indirect Rule system was seen as a cost-effective and efficient way of governing the colonies, as it made use of existing traditional structures and minimized the need for the colonial government to create new administrative systems. However, it was also criticized for entrenching the power of traditional rulers and chiefs at the expense of ordinary people and for reinforcing the social and political hierarchies of the traditional societies. In summary, Indirect Rule is a system of local administration used by colonial powers that relies on existing traditional rulers or chiefs to govern on their behalf.

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A major feature of the constitutions in the British West African colonies in the 1920s was the introduction of the elective principle. This means that instead of appointed officials or chiefs, representatives were chosen by the people through elections to serve in the legislative councils. This was a significant step towards self-governance and gave the people of the colonies a voice in their own governance. Prior to this, the colonial governors and appointed officials had significant control over the colonies and their affairs. The introduction of the elective principle was a move towards democracy and paved the way for further political reforms in the colonies.

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The immediate cause of the 1953 Kano riot was the humiliation of northern legislators in Lagos. In 1953, a delegation of northern legislators traveled to Lagos to negotiate the terms of Nigeria's independence with the British colonial authorities. However, the delegation was met with hostility and insults by some southern politicians, which led to protests and violence in the northern city of Kano. The riot was sparked by a belief that the northern region and its leaders were being disrespected and marginalized in the negotiations for independence. The incident highlighted the ethnic and regional tensions that existed in Nigeria at the time and underscored the need for a more inclusive political process that could accommodate the interests of all regions and ethnic groups.

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Voting at elections is one of the ways to ensure a representative government. A representative government is a type of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. In this type of government, the representatives are chosen through a process of free and fair elections, where citizens cast their votes for the candidates of their choice. Voting is therefore a crucial aspect of ensuring a representative government, as it provides citizens with a means of choosing the individuals who will represent them in government. By voting, citizens have the opportunity to express their preferences and to hold their elected officials accountable for their actions. This ensures that the government is responsive to the needs and interests of the people it represents, and that the decision-making process is transparent and inclusive. Therefore, voting is an important way for citizens to participate in the democratic process and to ensure that their voices are heard.

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One of the importance of federalism is that it allows for the distribution of power between the central government and the component states. This means that each state can have some level of autonomy and make decisions based on their own unique circumstances. For example, each state can develop at its own pace and spend the money allocated to it by the central government as it sees fit. Additionally, federalism ensures that citizens are not taxed by both the state and federal government, as each level of government has its own taxing powers. In essence, federalism promotes diversity and flexibility in governance, and it encourages citizens to be loyal to their states while also recognizing their allegiance to the central government.

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The Secretary-General who succeeded Dag Hammarskjold was U. Thant. He was a diplomat from Myanmar (formerly Burma) and served as Secretary-General from 1961 to 1971. Thant took over the role of Secretary-General after Hammarskjold's untimely death in a plane crash in 1961, and he faced many challenges during his tenure, including the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Vietnam War. Despite these challenges, Thant worked hard to promote peace and cooperation between nations, and he was instrumental in negotiating a peaceful resolution to the Cuban Missile Crisis. He was also a strong advocate for disarmament and worked to promote the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Thant was the first Secretary-General from Asia, and he played a crucial role in shaping the United Nations during a time of great global change and turmoil.

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Judiciary independence means that judges are not influenced by anyone in the performance of their duties. It means they are not swayed by external pressures or biased towards any particular group or individual. Judges are accountable only to the law and the Constitution. This ensures that they can make fair and impartial decisions based solely on the evidence presented to them, without fear of reprisals or influence from other branches of government or powerful individuals. Judiciary independence is an essential cornerstone of any democratic society and ensures the rule of law and equal justice for all.

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Nigeria considers Africa as the centerpiece of its foreign policy because of its leadership role in the continent, as well as its commitment to promoting the economic, political, and social development of African countries. This policy aligns with the United Nations charter on promoting cooperation among nations, and it is also in line with the wishes of Nigerians who see themselves as a leading nation in Africa. It is not a mandate from the colonialist, nor is it a mandate from African leaders, but rather a conscious decision by Nigeria to prioritize its relationship with other African countries.

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The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) was formed in 1944. The party emerged as a result of the merger of the National Democratic Party (NDP) led by Nnamdi Azikiwe and the Cameroons Peoples' Party (CPP) led by John Ngu Foncha. The NCNC was a major political force in Nigeria during the pre-independence period and played a key role in the struggle for independence. The party's formation marked a major step towards the attainment of independence in Nigeria as it brought together people from different regions and ethnic groups under a common political platform.

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To make elections hitch-free, the electoral commission must be independent and able to carry out its duties without interference from any external forces. This means that the commission should not be influenced by the government or any political party. The independence of the electoral commission is important because it ensures that the commission can carry out its duties without any bias or favoritism. This includes ensuring that all eligible voters are registered, polling stations are accessible to all, and the election process is transparent and fair. To further ensure that elections are hitch-free, the electoral commission should be able to punish electoral offenders. This includes individuals or groups that engage in vote-buying, intimidation, or any other form of electoral malpractice. By punishing offenders, the commission can help to deter others from engaging in such behaviors, thus promoting a fair and transparent election process. Having a spacious office accommodation or being ready to help the government may be beneficial, but they are not essential to making elections hitch-free. Similarly, while having the electoral commission headed by a judge or professor may enhance the credibility of the commission, it is not a requirement for a successful election process. The most important factor is the independence of the electoral commission, which ensures that the election process is fair and transparent.

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The measure contained in Nigeria's independence constitution to ensure the independence of the judiciary was the establishment of the Judicial Service Commission. This commission was responsible for the appointment, promotion, and discipline of judicial officers. It was created to ensure that the judiciary was free from executive interference, thereby upholding the principle of the separation of powers.

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The nationalists were not happy with the constitutional development in Nigeria between 1919 and 1946 because there were several limitations to the elective principle. For example, only men who met certain property qualifications were allowed to vote, and elections were restricted to certain areas such as Lagos and Calabar. The Legislative Council was dominated by traditional chiefs who were appointed rather than elected, and they often represented their own interests rather than those of the people. Additionally, Governor Lugard was criticized for his high-handedness, and Governor Clifford was not given a free hand to implement reforms. These factors contributed to the dissatisfaction of the nationalists with the constitutional developments during this period.

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One major disadvantage of a two-party system is that it divides the country into factions. In a two-party system, political power is concentrated in the hands of two dominant parties, and smaller parties have little chance of gaining significant representation. This can lead to a polarization of political views, where people are forced to choose between two extreme positions, even if they do not fully agree with either one. The two-party system can also create a winner-takes-all mentality, where the winning party takes control of the government and is able to push its agenda, even if it does not have the support of the majority of the population. This can be problematic in a diverse society, where different groups have different interests and perspectives. The two-party system can also stifle public opinion, as it tends to limit the range of political views that are represented in the political discourse. Overall, the two-party system can be seen as a disadvantage because it limits political choice and can create division and polarization within society.

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A representative government is a type of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. It is designed to ensure that citizens have a say in how they are governed and to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a single individual or group. Out of the options given, the feature that is not associated with a representative government is "military rule." Military rule refers to a system of government in which military officials govern a country, either directly or indirectly, without the consent of the people. This is not a feature of a representative government because it goes against the idea of citizen participation and democratic decision-making. On the other hand, the other options are features of a representative government. For example, equality of rights is a fundamental principle of democracy, and representative government seeks to ensure that all citizens have equal access to the political process. Legitimacy of government is another feature of a representative government because it is important that citizens have trust and confidence in their elected officials. Periodic elections are also a key feature because they allow citizens to hold their representatives accountable and to replace them if necessary. Finally, secession is not a feature of a representative government because it undermines the idea of a unified, democratic state.

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The OAU (Organisation of African Unity) was founded on May 25, 1963, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. During its formative stage, there were two groups of African states with different views on how the OAU should be structured and function. These groups were known as the Casablanca Group and the Monrovia Group. The Casablanca Group, also known as the African Socialist Group, was made up of mainly francophone countries and was led by Ghana's first president, Kwame Nkrumah. They wanted a more centralized and united Africa and believed that the OAU should have a common political and economic policy, and a common army. The Monrovia Group, also known as the conservative or pro-Western group, was led by Liberia, and made up of mainly anglophone countries. They wanted a more loose and decentralized organization, with each country maintaining its sovereignty and independence. They believed that the OAU should focus on promoting economic and social development rather than political unity. Nigeria, during the formative stage of the OAU, belonged to the Monrovia Group. They supported a more decentralized organization, with each country maintaining its independence and sovereignty. Nigeria's position was influenced by its desire to maintain its relationship with the West and avoid being seen as a socialist state. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is option C, Monrovia.

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Collective responsibility is a principle of cabinet government, which means that Cabinet Ministers jointly share praises and blames for the decisions made by the government. This means that when a decision is made by the Cabinet, all Cabinet Ministers are bound to support and defend it, even if they had reservations about it initially. If a Minister cannot support a decision, they are expected to resign from the Cabinet. Therefore, option D, "Cabinet Ministers jointly share praises and blames," describes the term Collective Responsibility correctly. Ministers are responsible to parliament individually for their own departments, but when it comes to decisions made by the Cabinet as a whole, they are collectively responsible for them. The Prime Minister is accountable to the Cabinet, but this does not describe Collective Responsibility as a principle. Permanent Secretaries are responsible to parliament for the day-to-day running of their departments, but they are not Cabinet Ministers and are not bound by Collective Responsibility.

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The dissolution of parliament is generally followed by a general election. A general election is a type of election in which all eligible voters within a country or a constituency can vote to choose representatives for their parliament or government. When a parliament is dissolved, it means that the current parliament's term has ended, and new representatives must be elected to form a new parliament. The dissolution of parliament typically occurs after the completion of the parliament's term or in the event of a vote of no confidence in the government. The general election that follows the dissolution of parliament allows citizens to choose new representatives and decide the composition of the new parliament. Therefore, a general election is the most likely outcome that follows the dissolution of parliament.

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The Public Complaints Commission (PCC) has the power to investigate complaints made by members of the public against government agencies, officials or institutions. This means that if someone has a complaint about how they have been treated by a government agency or official, they can go to the PCC for help. Once the PCC investigates the complaint, they can make findings and report those findings to the appropriate authorities. This means that the PCC will determine what has happened and make recommendations on what should be done to address the complaint. The PCC can also reprimand authorities against whom complaints are made. This means that if the PCC finds that a government official or agency has acted improperly or unfairly, they can publicly criticize or scold them for their behavior. However, the PCC does not have the power to prosecute false complaints. It is important to note that making a false complaint to the PCC is a serious offense and can result in legal consequences. The PCC also does not refer complaints to state governments or traditional rulers. Instead, their focus is on investigating complaints and making recommendations to appropriate authorities.

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The act of influencing legislation by persuading legislators is known as lobbying. Lobbying involves advocating for a specific cause or interest by individuals or groups who seek to influence the decisions of government officials, particularly lawmakers. Lobbyists work to persuade legislators to support or oppose specific legislation or policies, often through personal meetings, phone calls, emails, and other forms of communication. The goal of lobbying is to advance a particular agenda or cause by influencing the creation or amendment of laws and regulations.

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Bye-laws are made by the local authority, such as a city council, municipal council, or other forms of local government. Bye-laws are a type of law that is specific to a particular locality and are created by the local government to address issues or problems unique to that area. These laws are usually made to regulate activities that may affect the quality of life of the people in the area, such as noise levels, street trading, waste disposal, and public behavior. The process of creating bye-laws usually involves public consultation, where members of the community are invited to give their input and suggestions. The local government then considers the feedback received and creates the bye-laws, which are then passed by the council or other relevant local authority. Once bye-laws are passed, they become legally binding and enforceable in the locality where they are made. The enforcement of bye-laws is usually carried out by local authorities, such as local government officials, the police, or other relevant regulatory agencies. In summary, bye-laws are made by the local authority, and they are specific laws created to regulate activities within a particular locality, with the aim of addressing unique issues or problems in that area.

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Popular sovereignty belongs to the electorate, which means the people. It is the principle that the power and authority of the government comes from the people themselves. In a democratic system, the people have the ultimate say in the government through their right to vote and elect their leaders. The government is accountable to the people and must act in their interest, as they are the source of its power. This is the opposite of the idea of absolute monarchy, where the ruler has unlimited power and authority over the people.

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Freedom of the press helps it to play a watchdog role. Freedom of the press is the right to publish news and opinions without government censorship or restraint. When the press is free to report without fear of censorship or reprisal, it can serve as a watchdog on government and other powerful institutions, holding them accountable for their actions and exposing wrongdoing. This is an essential function of a free press in a democratic society. Without freedom of the press, governments and other powerful entities would be free to operate without scrutiny, and the public would be left in the dark about important issues affecting their lives. Therefore, freedom of the press is a fundamental right that helps to ensure transparency and accountability in government and other institutions.

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The coup d’etat of July 29 1966 in Nigeria ousted from government Major General Aguiyi lronisi, who was the Head of State at the time.

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The feature that was not a part of the 1922 elective principle in Nigeria was that British citizens were allowed to vote. The 1922 elective principle in Nigeria had four major features: it restricted suffrage to men, confined elections to Lagos and Calabar, required a property qualification worth Ƹ100.00, and only four members were elected into the legislative council. However, British citizens were not allowed to vote under this principle. Only a small minority of the Nigerian population were eligible to vote, and this was limited to men who met certain property qualifications. The elective principle was a limited form of representative government that was gradually expanded over time.

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The doctrine of separation of powers is associated with Montesquieu, a French political philosopher of the 18th century. Montesquieu believed that the powers of government should be divided into three branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. He argued that this separation of powers was necessary to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful and potentially tyrannical. The legislative branch would make the laws, the executive branch would enforce the laws, and the judicial branch would interpret the laws. Montesquieu's ideas on the separation of powers have had a profound influence on modern constitutional law and are a cornerstone of many democratic systems of government around the world.

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The 1979 Constitution of Nigeria introduced the American-style presidential system, in which the President was both Head of State and Head of Government (chief executive). His functions included the following.

1. Head of State and Head of Government: He was the symbol of national unity and at the same time the effective chief executive who directed the affairs of government.
2. Execution of laws and policies: He was responsible for implementing and enforcing the laws made by the National Assembly and for formulating and executing government policies.
3. Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: He controlled and directed the armed forces and was responsible for the defence and security of the nation.
4. Appointment of principal officers: He appointed ministers, ambassadors, judges and other top public officers, subject to confirmation by the Senate where required.
5. Conduct of foreign affairs: He directed the country's foreign policy, received and appointed envoys, and negotiated and signed treaties.
6. Assent to bills: He signed bills passed by the National Assembly into law, and could withhold assent (veto), which the Assembly could override by a two-thirds majority.
7. Preparation of the national budget: He prepared and laid the annual budget (Appropriation Bill) before the National Assembly for approval.
8. Prerogative of mercy: He could grant pardon, reprieve or commute the sentence of convicted persons.

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Features of French colonial administration in West Africa

1. Policy of assimilation (and later association): The French aimed to turn Africans into black Frenchmen by imposing French language, culture, laws and customs, so that the colonies were regarded as overseas parts of France.
2. Direct rule (centralisation): The French governed directly through their own appointed officials rather than through traditional rulers, and traditional chiefs were reduced to mere agents who carried out French orders.
3. Highly centralised structure: All the territories were grouped into large federations (French West Africa, based in Dakar, and French Equatorial Africa) under a Governor-General, with power flowing from Paris downwards.
4. Citizen and subject distinction: A few assimilated Africans became French citizens with full rights, while the vast majority remained "subjects" governed by the harsh indigenat code.
5. The indigenat (native code): Subjects were governed by a special code that allowed administrators to punish them summarily without trial.
6. Forced labour and taxation: The system relied heavily on forced (compulsory) labour and heavy direct taxation of the people.
7. Representation in the French Parliament: Citizens from the colonies could elect deputies to represent them in the French National Assembly in Paris.
8. Assimilation of law and the economy tied to France: French law applied to citizens, and the economy was organised to serve metropolitan France.

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Functions of the Prime Minister in a cabinet system of government

1. Head of government: The Prime Minister is the chief executive who directs and controls the general policy and administration of the state.
2. Formation of the cabinet: He appoints ministers into the cabinet from among members of parliament and assigns them their portfolios; he can also reshuffle or dismiss them.
3. Presiding over cabinet meetings: He summons, chairs and directs the deliberations of the cabinet and coordinates the work of the various ministries.
4. Chief adviser to the Head of State: He advises the ceremonial Head of State (monarch or president) and is the main link between the government and the Head of State.
5. Leader of his party and of parliament: He is the leader of the majority party in the legislature and leads government business on the floor of the House.
6. Spokesman of the government: He explains and defends government policies both at home and abroad and represents the nation in international affairs.
7. Making of appointments: He advises on and makes key appointments to important public offices.
8. Advising dissolution of parliament: He may advise the Head of State to dissolve parliament and call fresh general elections.

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Revenue allocation is the sharing of nationally collected revenue among the tiers of government (federal, state and local) and among the component states. Over the years several principles have guided this exercise in Nigeria.

1. Derivation: Revenue is shared partly on the basis of the contribution each state makes to the national purse; a state that produces resources such as oil receives a percentage of the revenue derived from it.
2. Population: States with larger populations receive a larger share, since they have more people to cater for in terms of services and amenities.
3. Equality of states: A portion is shared equally among all the states regardless of size or population, to promote a sense of belonging and unity.
4. Need: Allocation takes account of the developmental and social needs of each unit, so that less developed areas receive support.
5. Even development / balanced development: Revenue is shared so as to reduce inequalities and promote balanced growth across all parts of the country.
6. Landmass and terrain: States with large land areas or difficult terrain requiring greater spending on infrastructure receive consideration.
7. Internal revenue effort: States are rewarded for their effort in generating internal revenue, to encourage financial responsibility.
8. National interest: Some revenue is reserved to meet national obligations and emergencies in the overall interest of the country.

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Stages of passing a bill into law

A bill is a proposed law before it is passed and assented to. It passes through the following stages in the legislature:

1. First Reading: The bill is formally introduced. Only the title is read out and copies are circulated to members. There is no debate at this stage.
2. Second Reading: The general principles and objectives of the bill are debated. Members argue for or against it, and a vote is taken on whether it should proceed. This is the most important stage.
3. Committee Stage: If it passes the second reading, the bill is referred to a committee (a select or the committee of the whole House) which examines it clause by clause, takes evidence and makes amendments.
4. Report Stage: The committee reports the amended bill back to the House. The amendments are considered and either accepted or rejected by the whole House.
5. Third Reading: The bill is considered in its final, amended form. Only minor verbal changes are allowed, and a final vote is taken to pass it.
6. Passage to the other chamber: In a bicameral legislature, the bill goes through the same stages in the second chamber. Any disagreement is resolved by a conference/joint committee.
7. Executive assent: The bill is sent to the Head of State (President/Governor), who signs it into law. It then becomes an Act (or Law) and takes effect. If he withholds assent, the legislature may override the veto by the required majority.

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Characteristics of the civil service

1. Permanence: Civil servants enjoy security of tenure; they remain in office regardless of changes of government, retiring only on grounds such as age, ill-health or misconduct.
2. Political neutrality (impartiality): Civil servants do not take part in partisan politics; they serve any government of the day faithfully irrespective of its political leanings.
3. Anonymity: They work behind the scenes and do not take public credit or blame for policies; it is the minister who is answerable to the public and to parliament.
4. Impartiality: They treat all citizens equally and give unbiased advice, without fear or favour.
5. Hierarchical organisation: The service is arranged in a clear chain of command, from the permanent secretary at the top down through the various grades, with each officer answerable to a superior.
6. Expertise and professionalism: Officers are recruited on merit through competitive examinations and are trained specialists in their fields.
7. Recruitment on merit: Appointment and promotion are based on qualification, ability and experience rather than on political patronage.
8. Rule by established rules and procedures: The service operates according to fixed regulations, official channels and written records.

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None

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Non-alignment is a foreign policy of refusing to be permanently tied to any of the rival power blocs (during the Cold War, the Western capitalist bloc led by the USA and the Eastern communist bloc led by the USSR). The following reasons show that Nigeria is a non-aligned nation.

1. Membership of the Non-Aligned Movement: Nigeria is a founding-era and active member of the Non-Aligned Movement, formally committing it to the policy of non-alignment.
2. Refusal to join any military alliance: Nigeria has never joined either NATO (Western) or the former Warsaw Pact (Eastern) military blocs, keeping it free of bloc obligations.
3. Judging issues on their merit: Nigeria decides its position on international issues on the basis of their justice and its own national interest, not on the dictates of any power bloc.
4. Trade and diplomatic relations with both blocs: Nigeria maintains economic, diplomatic and technical relations with both capitalist and communist countries without discrimination.
5. Support for decolonisation and anti-imperialism: Nigeria consistently supported liberation movements and opposed colonialism, apartheid and racism, a hallmark of the non-aligned position.
6. Freedom of action in foreign policy: Nigeria retains the freedom to formulate and pursue an independent foreign policy centred on African interests without external control.

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The Macpherson Constitution of 1951, though it introduced a large measure of self-government and a federal structure, broke down within a few years. The reasons for its breakdown include the following.

1. Absence of a doctrine of collective responsibility: Ministers had no real executive power and were not collectively responsible; they were mere advisers to the British officials who still held real power, causing frustration among nationalists.
2. The Central Legislature was too weak: The regions had grown strong while the centre lacked the power to control them, and there was constant friction over the division of powers.
3. Rivalry and mistrust among the political parties and ethnic groups: Deep suspicion between the North and the South, and among the NCNC, Action Group and NPC, made cooperation difficult.
4. The Kano Riot of 1953: Violent clashes between Northerners and Southerners in Kano deepened regional bitterness and made the existing arrangement unworkable.
5. The self-government motion of 1953: Anthony Enahoro's motion for self-government in 1956 was rejected by the Northern members, leading to a walkout and open conflict that exposed the constitution's inability to hold the regions together.
6. Its rigid and undemocratic features: The constitution was imposed with limited genuine consultation, and its unworkable sharing of powers between centre and regions made collapse inevitable, forcing a new conference and the Lyttleton Constitution of 1954.

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Major features of the constitution of a state

A constitution is the body of fundamental rules and principles by which a state is governed. Its major features include:

1. The form of government: It states whether the government is unitary or federal, presidential or parliamentary, republican or monarchical.
2. Provisions on the organs of government: It establishes the legislature, the executive and the judiciary and defines their composition, powers and functions.
3. Separation of powers and checks and balances: It shows how powers are shared among the arms of government and how each checks the others.
4. Fundamental human rights: It guarantees the basic rights and freedoms of citizens, such as the right to life, liberty, fair hearing and freedom of expression.
5. The rule of law: It provides that government and citizens alike are subject to the law and that all are equal before the law.
6. Amendment procedure: It lays down the method by which the constitution itself may be altered or amended.
7. Citizenship provisions: It states who the citizens of the state are and how citizenship may be acquired or lost.
8. Supremacy clause: It usually declares itself the supreme law of the land, so that any other law inconsistent with it is null and void.