WAEC SSCE - Government - 2015

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Honorary citizenship is the conferment of citizenship on a distinguished personality of another country. It is an honor or award bestowed by a country on a foreign national who has made significant contributions to the betterment of society or to the relationship between the two countries. Unlike other forms of citizenship, honorary citizenship does not grant any legal rights or privileges, such as the right to vote or work in the country. It is more of a symbolic gesture to recognize the individual's achievements and contributions.

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The set of attitudes and beliefs that determine the behavior of citizens in a political system is called political culture. Political culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, and practices that shape the behavior of citizens within a particular political system. These attitudes and beliefs can include ideas about democracy, government, citizenship, and the role of the individual in society. For example, in a country with a strong democratic political culture, citizens may have a deep-seated belief in the importance of free and fair elections, political participation, and the protection of individual rights and freedoms. These values and beliefs can shape the behavior of citizens in that country, influencing how they vote, engage with political parties, and participate in civic life. Political culture can also be influenced by historical, social, and economic factors, as well as by the actions of political leaders and institutions. It is an important aspect of any political system, as it helps to shape the expectations and behavior of citizens, and can have a significant impact on the success or failure of democratic institutions and processes. Overall, political culture plays a critical role in shaping the behavior of citizens within a political system, and understanding it is essential for building and maintaining a healthy democracy.

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The feature of the civil service is impartiality. Impartiality means that civil servants are expected to remain neutral and non-partisan in their work and decisions, and to serve the public interest without favoritism or bias towards any political party or individual. This is a fundamental principle of the civil service, which helps ensure that government institutions and policies are fair and effective for all citizens. In contrast, disloyalty and political activism would be considered negative traits in civil service, and temporary tenure refers to the length of time a civil servant may hold their position, which is not necessarily a defining feature of the civil service itself.

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A manifesto can be defined as the proposed programmes of a political party. A political party's manifesto is a public declaration of its policy objectives, goals, and proposed programs, which it pledges to implement if elected to power. It is essentially a document that outlines the party's vision for the country or region it seeks to govern. The manifesto typically covers a range of issues, such as the economy, education, healthcare, foreign policy, and social welfare. It lays out the party's position on each issue and the specific steps it plans to take to achieve its goals. The manifesto is an important tool for political parties to communicate their ideas and policies to the public and to gain support for their candidates in elections. It is also a way for voters to hold parties accountable for their promises once they are in power.

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The question is asking for the option that is NOT an aim of an election. An election is a process by which the people of a country choose their leaders through voting. It is a means to establish democratic governance, and its main aims are to ensure accountability of leaders, provide a smooth change of government, and allow the people to determine who rules. Therefore, the option that is not an aim of an election is "a group sticks on to power," which implies an undemocratic process of leadership succession.

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The first black African to hold the position of UN Secretary-General was Kofi Annan. He was a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1997 to 2006. Annan was appointed to the position by the UN General Assembly and the Security Council, and he served two terms. During his tenure as Secretary-General, Annan focused on issues such as poverty reduction, HIV/AIDS, and conflict resolution. He also played a key role in the UN's response to the 9/11 attacks and in the lead-up to the Iraq War. Annan was a respected international statesman, and his leadership helped to advance the cause of peace and development around the world.

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A constitution that can be amended through ordinary law making process is said to be flexible. This means that the constitution can be changed and modified easily without requiring any special or rigorous process. This type of constitution allows for greater adaptability to changing circumstances and can be amended by a simple majority vote in the legislature. The opposite of a flexible constitution is a rigid constitution which requires a more complex process for amendment and may require a supermajority or even a referendum.

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The first print media used by nationalists to oppose colonialism in British West Africa was the West African Pilot. The newspaper was established by Nnamdi Azikiwe, a Nigerian nationalist and later the first President of Nigeria. The newspaper was used as a platform to promote nationalist ideas and to agitate for the independence of Nigeria and other British West African countries. It also provided a voice for Africans who were excluded from the colonial government and who were demanding greater participation in the political process. The West African Pilot played a significant role in the struggle for independence in British West Africa, and its impact was felt throughout the region.

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The presidential system of government operates on the checks and balances. In a presidential system, the executive, legislative, and judiciary are separate and independent branches of government, and each has its own specific powers and responsibilities. This separation of powers allows each branch to check and balance the powers of the other branches, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful and protecting the rights and freedoms of citizens. For example, the president can veto laws passed by the legislature, but the legislature can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote. The judiciary can declare laws or actions of the executive branch unconstitutional, but the executive can appoint judges with the approval of the legislature. This system ensures that power is distributed and balanced, and that no one branch or individual has too much control over the government.

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A multi-party party system best represents all shades of opinions. In a multi-party system, there are several political parties that participate in elections and have the opportunity to represent a diverse range of opinions and interests. This allows for more options for voters to choose from, and provides greater representation for a broader range of perspectives. A two-party system, by contrast, tends to limit the range of political opinions that are represented in government, and can lead to a lack of diversity in political representation. A one-party system and elite-party system are even more restrictive, with only one or a small group of parties having significant political power.

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One of the prominent West African nationalist leaders was Kwame Nkrumah. He was a Ghanaian nationalist who played a key role in Ghana's struggle for independence from British colonial rule. Nkrumah was a charismatic leader who inspired many in Africa and beyond with his vision of Pan-Africanism, which called for the unity of all African countries. Nkrumah was born in Ghana in 1909 and was educated in the United States and England. He became involved in the African nationalist movement in the 1940s and helped found the Convention People's Party (CPP) in 1949. The CPP advocated for independence from British colonial rule and drew support from a wide range of Ghanaians, including workers, farmers, and intellectuals. Nkrumah's leadership and advocacy for independence made him a target of British colonial authorities, and he was jailed several times in the 1950s. However, his popularity continued to grow, and Ghana finally gained its independence in 1957, with Nkrumah as its first prime minister. He later became the country's president, and his policies of socialism and Pan-Africanism led to significant economic growth and development in Ghana. Nkrumah's legacy extends beyond Ghana, as he was a key figure in the Pan-African movement and inspired many other African leaders in their struggles for independence. His ideas of African unity and economic self-sufficiency continue to influence political discourse in Africa and beyond today.

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Swearing an oath of allegiance is a condition for granting citizenship to a foreigner. When a foreigner seeks citizenship in a new country, one of the conditions they must meet is to swear an oath of allegiance to that country. This oath is a solemn promise to uphold and defend the constitution and laws of the country, and to be loyal to its government and institutions. The oath of allegiance is a way for the government to ensure that new citizens are committed to the values and principles of the country, and that they are willing to support and defend its institutions and way of life. It is a formal declaration of loyalty and commitment to the new country, and is considered an important step in the naturalization process. In many countries, the oath of allegiance is administered during a citizenship ceremony, which is often a public event where new citizens take the oath and receive their citizenship certificates. This ceremony is a way to celebrate the new citizens and welcome them into the community. Overall, swearing an oath of allegiance is a key condition for granting citizenship to a foreigner, and is an important way for the government to ensure that new citizens are committed to the values and principles of the country.

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The primary aim of any political party is to control the government. A political party is an organized group of people with similar political views and goals, who seek to gain power through elections and other means. The ultimate goal of a political party is to win elections and form a government, which can then implement its policies and programs. This involves convincing voters to support their party's candidates and ideas, as well as building coalitions with other groups and individuals. Once in power, the party can use its influence to shape the direction of the country and make changes to laws and policies. While parties may also engage in pressuring the government or promoting fair play in business, their primary aim is to control the government and implement their political agenda.

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Representative democracy is a form of government where the citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. It is characterized by free and fair elections, where citizens have the opportunity to vote and choose their leaders. A proper register of voters is also maintained to ensure that only eligible voters participate in the election process. In a representative democracy, the elected representatives are expected to represent the interests of all citizens, including the poor and marginalized, and not just the interests of a politically educated elite or special interest groups. The ultimate aim is to have a government that is accountable to the people and responsive to their needs and aspirations.

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The function of pressure groups is to provide a forum for the ventilation of grievances. This means that pressure groups exist to allow individuals or organizations with shared interests or concerns to come together and advocate for their cause. Pressure groups seek to influence public opinion and government policy through activities such as lobbying, protests, and media campaigns. They represent a diverse range of interests, including environmental protection, human rights, consumer rights, and business interests. By providing a platform for people to express their concerns and advocate for change, pressure groups play an important role in promoting democracy and holding governments accountable.

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The major source of local government revenue is grants from the central authority. Local governments are responsible for providing services and infrastructure to their communities, such as roads, schools, and waste management. However, they often lack the financial resources to do so effectively on their own. Therefore, central governments provide grants to local governments to help fund these services. These grants can take many forms, such as block grants, which provide a fixed amount of funding for specific purposes, or revenue-sharing grants, which allocate a portion of tax revenue collected by the central government to local governments. Additionally, central governments may provide specific grants for infrastructure projects or other initiatives. While local governments may also generate revenue from other sources, such as property taxes or fees for services, these are often insufficient to meet their needs. Therefore, grants from the central authority are a crucial source of funding for local governments, allowing them to provide essential services and infrastructure to their communities.

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Franchise is the right to vote and be voted for in an election. In other words, it is the right to participate in the political process by choosing representatives to govern and to be chosen to serve as a representative. The term "franchise" is often used to describe the right to vote, and it is an important aspect of democracy, as it allows citizens to have a say in who governs them and how they are governed.

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The purpose of entrenching Fundamental Human Rights in constitutions is to guarantee the liberty of citizens. This means that every individual has the right to live, express themselves, worship, move and associate freely without fear of discrimination or persecution from any person or group. The constitution serves as a safeguard for these rights, protecting individuals from any form of abuse or infringement by the state or other citizens. The rights enshrined in the constitution help to promote good governance, as they serve as a standard for the government's actions and ensure that the government is held accountable for its actions. They also promote trade by creating a stable and secure environment that encourages foreign investment and economic growth.

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The method in which a group of people are interviewed on a specific political issue is called opinion sampling. Opinion sampling involves selecting a group of people who are representative of the larger population and asking them a series of questions about a specific political issue. The goal of opinion sampling is to gauge the attitudes and opinions of the larger population by using a smaller sample group. Opinion sampling can be done in various ways, such as through telephone surveys, online polls, or in-person interviews. The sample group is typically chosen at random or through a specific sampling technique to ensure that it is representative of the larger population. The questions asked during the interview are designed to elicit specific information about the attitudes, beliefs, and opinions of the participants on the political issue being studied. Opinion sampling is an important tool for politicians, policymakers, and researchers because it provides a way to understand the attitudes and beliefs of the public on political issues. By analyzing the results of opinion sampling, policymakers can develop policies that reflect the views of the public, while researchers can use the data to better understand the factors that shape political attitudes and behaviors.

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The Civil Service is an administrative institution of the executive arm of government. It is a body of permanent officials who are responsible for implementing government policies and delivering services to the public. The Civil Service is an integral part of the government and is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the government, such as managing public finances, developing and implementing policies, providing public services, and maintaining law and order. The Civil Service is made up of individuals who have been appointed based on their qualifications and merit, rather than political affiliation or patronage. They are expected to be neutral and apolitical in carrying out their duties. The Civil Service plays a crucial role in ensuring that the government operates efficiently and effectively, and that the needs of the public are met.

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In British West Africa, the "casting vote" was one of the ways the Governor controlled the Legislative Council. The Legislative Council was the governing body in British West Africa, made up of appointed and elected members. The Governor had the power to veto any decision made by the Council, but the casting vote was another important tool of control. The casting vote was the Governor's deciding vote in case of a tie. If the Council was split on a decision, the Governor would cast the deciding vote to break the tie. This gave the Governor significant influence over the Council's decisions, as he could use his vote to push through policies that he favored. The Governor's use of the casting vote was a way to maintain control over the Legislative Council and ensure that his policies were implemented. It was a powerful tool of colonial governance, which gave the Governor significant influence over the political process in British West Africa. Overall, the casting vote was an important way the Governor controlled the Legislative Council in British West Africa, and it allowed him to maintain significant influence over the political process in the colonies.

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Public opinion on the performance of a government can be best measured by the mass media. Mass media such as television, newspapers, and online news sources provide a platform for citizens to express their opinions on government policies and actions. They also offer a means for citizens to stay informed about government activities and to hold elected officials accountable for their actions. Through news reports, editorials, and public opinion polls, the mass media provide a valuable source of information for citizens to form and express their views on government performance.

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The option that exists in a one-party state is "The ruling party is the only legal party." A one-party state is a form of government where a single political party has the exclusive right to form the government and control the state. In such a state, the ruling party has a monopoly on power and is not challenged by opposition parties. Therefore, the ruling party is the only legal party allowed to exist in such a state. This means that all other political parties are banned, and citizens are not allowed to participate in any political activities outside the ruling party. As a result, elections are not competitive, and political power is consolidated within the ruling party.

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Colonialism is defined as the imposition of foreign rule on a territory. This typically involves the acquisition and control of territory and resources by a foreign power or nation, often for the purpose of exploiting those resources for the benefit of the colonizing power. This can involve the establishment of colonies, which are territories controlled by a foreign power, as well as the imposition of political and economic structures that benefit the colonizing power at the expense of the local population. Historically, colonialism has been associated with European expansion and imperialism, particularly during the 16th to the 19th centuries. However, colonialism can also take other forms and occur in different regions of the world. In summary, colonialism is the imposition of foreign rule on a territory for the purpose of exploiting resources for the benefit of the colonizing power, and it has been associated with European expansion and imperialism during the 16th to the 19th centuries.

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The origin of the Commonwealth of Nations can be traced to colonial ties. The Commonwealth was formed in 1931, after the British Empire began to grant independence to its colonies. These newly independent countries still had close ties to Britain, including cultural, economic, and political connections. The Commonwealth was created as a way to maintain these ties and promote cooperation and understanding among the member states. Today, the Commonwealth includes 54 member countries, most of which are former British colonies or territories.

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Montesquieu's political theory of separation of powers was meant to prevent dictatorial rule. In his theory, Montesquieu argued that power should be divided among different branches of government, with each branch having its own distinct powers and responsibilities. This would prevent any one person or group from gaining too much power and becoming a dictator. Montesquieu believed that the three branches of government - the legislative, executive, and judicial branches - should be separate and independent of one another. This separation of powers would ensure that no one branch could dominate the others, and that each branch could act as a check on the powers of the other branches. By preventing any one person or group from gaining too much power, Montesquieu's theory of separation of powers was intended to prevent dictatorial rule and promote democratic governance. The theory has been influential in shaping the constitutions and political systems of many modern democracies around the world.

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Confederal systems of government are characterized by a weak center and powerful component units. In a confederal system of government, the central government has limited powers and authority over the individual states or regions that make up the confederation. The component units, such as states or regions, have more power and authority than the central government. The central government in a confederal system is usually responsible for matters such as defense, foreign affairs, and other limited functions, while the individual states or regions are responsible for most other matters of governance, such as education, healthcare, and taxation. In summary, a confederal system of government is characterized by a weak central government and powerful component units such as states or regions, with the central government having limited powers and authority over the individual component units.

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Public opinion is the aggregate views or beliefs of a group of people regarding a particular issue or topic. It is the collective opinion of the individuals in a society or community, reflecting their beliefs, values, attitudes, and perceptions. Public opinion can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as political, social, cultural, and economic factors, as well as the information and media that people consume. Public opinion is an important factor in the democratic process, as it can influence government policies, elections, and public debates.

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The French policy of assimilation was based on the assumption that African culture was inferior. The policy of assimilation was a colonial policy adopted by the French government in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which aimed to turn the colonies into fully-fledged parts of France by replacing traditional African cultures with French language, culture, and values. The French believed that African cultures were backward and in need of "civilizing" through the imposition of French culture. This led to the suppression of African languages, customs, and traditions, and the imposition of French language, dress, and religion. The policy of assimilation was deeply rooted in the belief that French culture was superior to African cultures and that it was the duty of the French to "enlighten" Africans and bring them into the fold of French civilization.

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The Secretary-General of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is appointed for a period of five years. This is the standard term for the Secretary-General, as outlined in the United Nations Charter. The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council, and is eligible for reappointment. The Secretary-General serves as the chief administrative officer of the UN, and is responsible for carrying out the organization's day-to-day operations and for representing the UN in international fora.

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The prerogative power resides with the Executive. Prerogative powers are a set of powers and privileges that are traditionally held by the Monarch, but are now exercised by the Executive on their behalf. These powers include the power to make appointments, grant pardons, declare war, negotiate treaties, and issue proclamations. The Executive exercises these powers on behalf of the Monarch as part of their duties and responsibilities. The prerogative powers are an important aspect of the UK's unwritten constitution, and are subject to judicial review by the courts to ensure that they are exercised lawfully and within the limits of the law.

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The Pan-African Movements emerged as a result of European racial domination. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European powers had colonized and dominated most of Africa, leading to the exploitation and oppression of African peoples. In response, various Pan-African Movements emerged, advocating for the unity and solidarity of African peoples in their struggle against colonialism and racism. These movements sought to promote African self-determination and liberation, and played a significant role in the eventual decolonization of Africa in the mid-20th century.

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The administrative structure adopted in the French colonial territories was more of a centralized administration. France adopted a centralized approach to colonial administration, which means that power was concentrated in the hands of a few officials at the top of the colonial hierarchy. This administrative structure was based on the French model of government, which emphasized a strong central government and a highly centralized bureaucracy. Under this system, local traditional rulers and African age grades were largely excluded from the administration of the colony. Instead, power was concentrated in the hands of French officials who were responsible for governing the colony and enforcing French laws and policies. The French also imposed their language, culture, and way of life on the colonies, with little regard for African traditions or customs. This approach was seen as a way to "civilize" and modernize the colonies, but it also led to resentment and resistance from the colonized population. Overall, the French administrative structure in colonial territories was highly centralized and focused on imposing French culture and values on the colonies, rather than incorporating African traditions or customs into the system of governance.

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Quick decision-making is an advantage of unicameralism. Unicameralism is a system of government where there is only one chamber or house of legislature. This system is often characterized by its ability to make quick and efficient decisions because there is no need for a lengthy process of passing legislation between two chambers. In a unicameral system, legislation can be passed quickly and without delay, which can be an advantage in situations where swift action is needed. For example, in times of national crisis, a unicameral legislature can quickly pass emergency measures to address the situation without getting bogged down in lengthy debates or procedural hurdles. This can be particularly useful in times of war, natural disasters, or other emergencies where rapid decision-making can be the difference between life and death. Overall, unicameralism can be an effective system of government for countries that prioritize quick decision-making and efficient governance. However, it also has its drawbacks, such as the potential for a lack of checks and balances on legislative power.

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A citizen is an individual who has legal and political rights in a country. Legal and political rights are those granted to individuals by a government, which enable them to participate in the political process and enjoy certain protections under the law. These rights may include the right to vote, the right to freedom of speech and assembly, and the right to due process of law. Citizenship is generally acquired through birth in a country, through naturalization, or through marriage to a citizen. Once an individual becomes a citizen of a country, they are entitled to the legal and political rights of that country. It is important to note that citizenship does not necessarily require an individual to have lived in a country for a certain amount of time or to enjoy only economic rights. While residency requirements may exist for naturalization, they do not apply to citizenship acquired through birth or marriage. Additionally, citizenship typically grants individuals a range of rights beyond just economic ones. In summary, a citizen is an individual who has legal and political rights in a country, which enable them to participate in the political process and enjoy certain protections under the law.

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In a federal system of government, the power shared between the Centre and state governments is known as concurrent power. Concurrent power refers to the powers that are shared by both the federal government (Centre) and the state governments in a federal system. These powers are listed in the constitution and can be exercised by both levels of government. Examples of concurrent powers include the power to levy taxes, the power to regulate commerce, and the power to establish courts. Both the Centre and state governments can exercise these powers, but they must do so within the framework of the constitution and without infringing on each other's authority. Concurrent power is an important feature of federal systems because it allows for a balance of power between the Centre and the state governments. It also allows for greater flexibility in governing the country, as both levels of government can work together to address important issues and concerns. Overall, concurrent power is the power shared between the Centre and state governments in a federal system of government, and it allows for a balance of power and flexibility in governing the country.

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The practice of a multi-party system in West Africa tends to promote national integration. A multi-party system allows for different political parties to exist and compete in elections, representing different viewpoints and interests of the society. This encourages participation in the political process and helps to build a sense of national unity, as citizens come together to discuss and debate issues affecting the country. By allowing for peaceful competition between parties, a multi-party system can also help to prevent violence and promote stability. While there may be some sectionalism and factionalism within parties, the overall effect of a multi-party system is to promote a more inclusive and democratic society, where diverse voices are heard and valued. Ultimately, this can lead to greater economic integration as the country becomes more stable and attractive to investors.

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An election held to fill a vacant post in the legislature due to the death or resignation of a member is called a bye-election. A bye-election, also known as a special election, is a type of election held to fill a vacant seat in a legislative body before the end of the term. This can happen due to the death, resignation, or expulsion of a sitting member of the legislature. Bye-elections are usually held in a specific constituency or district to fill the vacancy for that particular seat. Unlike a general election, where all seats in the legislature are contested, bye-elections are held only for the vacant seat. In summary, a bye-election is an election held to fill a vacant seat in the legislature due to the death or resignation of a member, and it is held only for the vacant seat in a specific constituency or district.

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The set of attitudes and beliefs that determine the behavior of citizens in a political system is called political culture. Political culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, and practices that shape how people think about politics and how they behave in a political system. It includes things like attitudes towards democracy, the role of government, and individual rights and freedoms. Political culture can be shaped by a variety of factors, including historical events, religion, economic conditions, and socialization. For example, in some countries, there may be a strong tradition of individualism and self-reliance, while in others, there may be a greater emphasis on community and social responsibility. Political culture is important because it can shape how people participate in politics, how they view government and authority, and how they respond to political change. By understanding a country's political culture, it is possible to better understand how its citizens will respond to different political situations and policies, and how to design effective political institutions and systems.

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The origin of the Commonwealth of Nations can be traced to colonial ties. The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as the Commonwealth, was formed in 1931 as a voluntary association of countries that were formerly British colonies or territories. The member states cooperate on matters such as trade, education, and cultural exchange. The Commonwealth was founded on the principle of promoting the common interests of member states, while respecting their individual sovereignty. Today, the Commonwealth has 54 member countries, spanning six continents.

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The organ of government responsible for implementing policies in a state is the executive. The executive branch of government is responsible for executing or implementing laws and policies made by the legislature. It is headed by the President or Prime Minister and comprises of other officials, such as cabinet members, ministers, and bureaucrats, who are responsible for ensuring that the policies and laws are implemented efficiently and effectively. The executive branch also has the power to make rules and regulations to ensure the smooth running of government operations.

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Britain operates an unwritten constitution. The UK does not have a single document called the Constitution, but it is made up of a collection of laws, conventions, and traditions. These sources of the constitution are not written down in a single document, hence the term "unwritten constitution." The UK constitution is flexible and can be amended easily by Parliament.

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Diplomatic and parliamentary immunities put limitations on the rule of law. The rule of law is the principle that all individuals and entities, including government officials, are subject to the law and must abide by it. However, diplomatic and parliamentary immunities provide certain officials with legal protections that shield them from prosecution or legal action in certain situations. Diplomatic immunity, for example, protects foreign diplomats from being arrested or prosecuted by the host country's authorities. This is intended to allow diplomats to carry out their duties without fear of harassment or reprisals. Similarly, parliamentary immunity protects elected representatives from being prosecuted or sued for their political views or actions taken in the course of their official duties. While these immunities can serve important functions, such as promoting international relations and protecting political freedoms, they also limit the application of the rule of law by exempting certain individuals from legal consequences that would apply to others. This can create the perception of a double standard, where some individuals are above the law, and can potentially undermine public trust in government institutions.

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External relations refer to the way a country conducts its dealings and foreign policy towards other states. The following factors determine the external relations of West African countries:

1. National interest: Every state pursues foreign relations that protect and promote its own survival, security and economic well-being. A West African country will befriend states that serve its interest and keep distance from those that threaten it.
2. Economic considerations: The need for trade, foreign investment, aid, loans, markets for exports and sources of imports strongly shapes relations. Poorer states often cultivate ties with wealthy nations and donor institutions.
3. Ideology: The political and economic philosophy of a country (capitalist, socialist or non-aligned) influences the friends it chooses. During the Cold War, ideology divided alliances sharply.
4. Geographical location and contiguity: Shared borders create relations of both cooperation and tension. Neighbouring states must manage boundary issues, migration, cross-border trade and security.
5. Historical and colonial ties: Former colonies tend to maintain close links with their former colonial masters (for example, Anglophone states with Britain and Francophone states with France) through language, trade and defence.
6. Military strength and security needs: The desire for defence, arms and protection against external aggression or internal insurgency drives states to seek allies and enter military pacts.
7. Membership of international organisations: Belonging to bodies such as ECOWAS, the African Union, the United Nations and the Commonwealth obliges a state to align its conduct with the aims and charters of those organisations.
8. Domestic public opinion: The feelings and pressures of the citizens and interest groups at home can influence the direction of foreign policy.
9. Quality of leadership and personality of leaders: The vision, ideology and diplomatic skill of the head of government shape the tone and priorities of external relations.
10. Racial and cultural affinity: Common race, religion, language and culture (such as African brotherhood or the Islamic bond) can draw states together.
11. Principle of reciprocity: States respond to others in like manner; friendliness is repaid with friendliness and hostility with hostility.

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(a) Three newspapers formed by nationalists in Nigeria after the Second World War.

1. The West African Pilot, founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe.
2. The Nigerian Tribune, founded by Obafemi Awolowo.
3. The Daily Comet (associated with the Zik Group of newspapers).

Other examples include the Southern Nigeria Defender and the Eastern Nigeria Guardian, also part of the Zik press.

(b) Four roles played by local newspapers in the struggle against colonial rule.

1. Political education and enlightenment: They educated the people about their rights, about self-government and about the evils of colonial rule, thereby awakening national consciousness.
2. Mobilisation of the people: They rallied and united Nigerians behind the nationalist movement and its leaders, and helped to popularise the political parties.
3. Criticism and exposure of colonial injustice: They criticised the policies and abuses of the colonial government and exposed acts of oppression and discrimination against Nigerians.
4. Provision of a platform for nationalist views: They gave the nationalists a medium through which to publish their demands, articulate grievances and press for reforms and eventual independence.

They also fostered a sense of common identity among the diverse peoples of Nigeria, strengthening the demand for one nation.

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(a) Meaning of constitutionalism

Constitutionalism is the doctrine or practice by which the powers of government and the conduct of rulers are limited by, and exercised in strict accordance with, the provisions of the constitution. It means limited government under the rule of law, where those in authority govern according to established rules rather than by arbitrary personal will, and where the rights of citizens are protected against abuse of power.

(b) Four factors that can promote constitutionalism

1. Existence of the rule of law: When all persons and authorities are subject to the law and equal before it, government power is kept within lawful limits.
2. Separation of powers and checks and balances: Dividing power among the legislature, executive and judiciary, so that each checks the others, prevents the concentration and abuse of power.
3. Independence of the judiciary: An impartial and independent judiciary can interpret the constitution, curb excesses of government and protect citizens' rights.
4. Free press and enlightened citizenry: A free press and politically aware citizens expose abuse of power and hold rulers accountable.
5. Free and fair periodic elections: Regular elections allow the people to change bad leaders and compel governments to act within the constitution.
6. Existence of an entrenched written constitution and fundamental rights: A clear, supreme constitution that guarantees fundamental human rights provides a firm standard against which government action is measured.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Meaning of separation of powers. Separation of powers is the constitutional principle, associated with the French writer Baron de Montesquieu, which holds that the three powers of government, namely the legislative, the executive and the judicial, should be exercised by three separate and distinct organs, and that the same persons should not control more than one of them. Its aim is to prevent the concentration of power in one hand and so protect the liberty of the citizen. It is usually accompanied by a system of checks and balances.

(b)(i) Operation under the Presidential System.

1. The three arms are largely separate. The President and his ministers head the executive, the legislature makes the laws, and the judiciary interprets them.
2. Membership is separate: a person cannot be a member of the executive and the legislature at the same time. The President is not a member of the legislature.
3. The President is separately elected and holds office for a fixed term; he is not removable by an ordinary vote of the legislature except through impeachment.
4. The arms check one another: the legislature confirms appointments and can impeach the President; the President can veto bills; the judiciary can declare acts unconstitutional. Nigeria and the United States use this system.

(b)(ii) Operation under the Cabinet (Parliamentary) System.

1. There is a fusion rather than a strict separation of the executive and the legislature. Ministers are drawn from and remain members of the legislature.
2. The Prime Minister and cabinet are part of parliament and are collectively responsible to it; parliament can remove them through a vote of no confidence.
3. The head of state (monarch or ceremonial president) is separate from the head of government (Prime Minister), and executive power in practice lies with the cabinet.
4. Only the judiciary remains clearly separate and independent; the separation between the executive and the legislature is therefore weak.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Action Group (AG), founded in 1951 by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, controlled the Western Region during the years of self-government. Five of its achievements are outlined below.

1. Free primary education: The AG government introduced the free universal primary education scheme in the Western Region in 1955, greatly expanding school enrolment and literacy.
2. Free health services: It provided free medical services, especially for children, and built hospitals and health centres across the region.
3. Infrastructural development: It embarked on the construction of roads, and established landmark projects such as the first television station in Africa (WNTV, 1959) and the Cocoa House in Ibadan.
4. Agricultural and economic development: It promoted cash-crop farming, established farm settlements and marketing arrangements, and used cocoa revenue to fund development, raising the standard of living in the region.
5. Effective and progressive administration: It ran an efficient, welfare-oriented regional government that served as a model of good governance and set the pace in social services among the regions.

The party also played a leading role in the nationalist struggle by pressing vigorously for independence and for a truly federal constitution.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Five officials used in the conduct of an election on polling day, and (b) one function of each.

1. Presiding Officer: He is in charge of a polling station. His function is to take custody of the electoral materials, conduct the poll in an orderly manner, and announce and record the result at that station.
2. Poll (Polling) Clerk: He assists the presiding officer. His function is to check voters against the register, mark their names and issue ballot papers to accredited voters.
3. Ballot Box Attendant / Voting-Point Officer: His function is to guard the ballot box and ensure that each accredited voter drops only one ballot paper into the correct box after voting.
4. Security Officer (Police): His function is to maintain law and order at the polling station and to protect the voters, officials and electoral materials against violence or disruption.
5. Party Agent (Polling Agent): Appointed by a political party, his function is to observe the conduct of the poll on behalf of his party and to safeguard its interest by ensuring that the exercise is free and fair.

Other officials that may be present include electoral observers, whose function is to monitor the election and report on whether it was free and fair.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a)(i) Meaning of the term "military". The military refers to the organised armed forces of a state, comprising the army, the navy and the air force, which are established and trained to defend the country against external aggression and to maintain internal security. It is a disciplined, hierarchical institution built on the chain of command and obedience to orders.

(a)(ii) Meaning of a military coup d'etat. A military coup d'etat is the sudden, forceful and unconstitutional seizure of political power from a legitimate government by a section of the armed forces. It is an illegal change of government carried out by soldiers, usually by force or the threat of force, in violation of the constitution.

(b) Three basic features of military rule.

1. Rule by decree: The military governs by issuing decrees and edicts rather than by laws passed by an elected legislature, and these decrees are supreme and often cannot be questioned in the courts.
2. Suspension of the constitution and democratic institutions: The constitution is suspended in part or in whole, elected bodies are dissolved, and political parties and open political activity are banned.
3. Centralisation of power and a rigid command structure: Executive and legislative powers are fused in a Supreme Military Council or Ruling Council, and government operates through the hierarchical chain of command, with authority flowing from the top downwards.

Other features include the curtailment of fundamental human rights and the use of force to enforce obedience.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Definition of parliamentarianism. Parliamentarianism (the parliamentary or cabinet system of government) is a system in which the executive is drawn from and is directly responsible to the legislature (parliament). The head of government is the Prime Minister, who together with the cabinet remains a member of parliament and stays in office only so long as he retains the confidence of the majority in parliament. There is a fusion of the executive and legislative arms, and the offices of head of state and head of government are separate.

(b) Four differences between the parliamentary and presidential systems.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Secretary of State for the Colonies was the British Cabinet minister in London who was responsible for the administration of the colonies. He was the link between the colonial territories and the imperial government. Five of his functions are highlighted below.

1. Overall supervision of colonial administration: He was in charge of the Colonial Office and exercised general control over the government of all the colonies on behalf of the British Crown and Parliament.
2. Formulation of colonial policy: He initiated and directed the broad policies to be applied in the colonies and issued instructions to the Governors on how the territories were to be run.
3. Appointment and supervision of Governors and senior officials: He recommended the appointment of Governors and other senior colonial officers and supervised their conduct, receiving their reports and giving them directives.
4. Approval and review of colonial laws: He examined the ordinances passed in the colonies and could approve, amend or disallow them; his consent was required for important legislation.
5. Representation of colonial matters in the British Parliament: He answered questions and defended colonial policy and expenditure in Parliament, and served as the channel through which colonial affairs reached the imperial government.

He also controlled colonial finances by approving budgets and grants, and heard appeals and petitions from the colonies.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Definition of public opinion. Public opinion is the collective view, belief or attitude held and expressed by a considerable number of citizens on a matter of public interest at a particular time. It is the aggregate of the opinions of the generality of the people on an issue affecting the community, and government in a democracy is expected to take it into account.

(b) Three ways by which public opinion can be formed.

1. Through the mass media: Newspapers, radio, television and the internet report events and comment on issues, thereby shaping the views of the public.
2. Through political parties and pressure groups: These organisations articulate positions on public questions and mobilise citizens to accept and support their views.
3. Through discussion and interaction in society: Debates in schools, religious bodies, town-hall meetings, markets and social gatherings, as well as the influence of opinion leaders, help to form and crystallise public opinion.

(c) Three ways public opinion can be encouraged in my country.

1. Guaranteeing freedom of expression and of the press: When citizens and the media are free to speak and publish without fear, opinions can be freely formed and expressed.
2. Promoting mass education and political enlightenment: An educated and informed citizenry is better able to understand issues and to form sound opinions.
3. Providing avenues for expression such as free elections, public hearings and opinion polls: Regular elections, referenda, public hearings and the use of opinion surveys give the people channels through which their views can be gathered and made to count.