WAEC SSCE - Government - 2002

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Local governments can raise funds through rates. Rates are a form of tax imposed by local governments on properties within their jurisdiction. Property owners are required to pay a certain amount of money to the local government based on the value of their property. This revenue is used by local governments to fund various projects and services within their communities, such as roads, schools, and healthcare facilities. Import duties, company duties, and excise duties are not typically used as a source of revenue for local governments, but are instead forms of taxes collected by national governments on goods and services.

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Constitutionalism refers to a political philosophy and practice that emphasizes the importance of having a written constitution, which serves as the supreme law of the land, and establishes a framework for government, including the distribution of powers among different branches of government, the protection of individual rights and liberties, and the establishment of a system of checks and balances to prevent abuse of power. Therefore, constitutionalism is synonymous with the supremacy of the law, which means that all individuals and government officials are subject to the provisions of the constitution, and no one is above the law. While separation of powers, delegated legislation, and checks and balances are important components of constitutionalism, they are not synonymous with it.

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The French attempted to change African culture through the policy of assimilation. This policy was part of the French colonial system, which aimed to integrate the colonized peoples into French culture and society. The French believed that African cultures were inferior and that the best way to "civilize" the Africans was to make them French in language, culture, and values. Under the policy of assimilation, the French encouraged African elites to adopt French language and customs, to attend French schools and universities, and to become part of French political and administrative systems. They also sought to create a French-speaking African middle class that would serve as a bridge between French and African cultures. However, the policy of assimilation was met with resistance from many Africans who saw it as an attempt to erase their own cultures and identities. Some African leaders rejected French culture and language, and instead promoted the preservation of African traditions and customs. The policy of assimilation was eventually abandoned in the 1950s and 1960s as African countries gained independence from colonial rule.

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Rigging is not a purpose of election. Elections are a fundamental aspect of democratic governance, and they serve several important purposes. One of the primary purposes of elections is political recruitment, as they provide an opportunity for citizens to choose their leaders and representatives. This allows for the emergence of new political leaders and ensures that political power is distributed fairly. Another important purpose of elections is the exercise of franchise, or the right to vote. Elections provide citizens with a means of participating in the democratic process and expressing their political preferences. Elections also serve as a means of ensuring the legitimacy of the government. When leaders are chosen through free and fair elections, the resulting government is seen as legitimate and is more likely to enjoy the support of the people. Rigging, on the other hand, is a corrupt practice that undermines the integrity of elections and subverts the will of the people. It involves manipulating the voting process in order to achieve a desired outcome, such as by stuffing ballot boxes, intimidating voters, or falsifying election results. Rigging is not a legitimate purpose of elections and is widely condemned as a violation of democratic principles.

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The purpose of an election is to provide a democratic means for the selection of political leaders and representatives. It allows citizens to participate in the political process by exercising their right to vote and choose their preferred candidates or parties. Through elections, the following purposes can be achieved: - Political recruitment: Elections provide an opportunity for individuals to participate in the political process and be elected into political offices, allowing for political recruitment and renewal of leadership. - Exercise of franchise: Elections provide an opportunity for citizens to exercise their right to vote and have a say in the selection of their leaders. - Legitimacy: Elections confer legitimacy on the government by ensuring that those in power are chosen through a fair and transparent process that reflects the will of the people. However, rigging is not a purpose of an election. Rigging is an illegal and unethical practice that undermines the integrity of the electoral process and goes against the purpose of elections. It involves manipulating the results of an election to favor a particular candidate or party, thereby denying citizens the opportunity to exercise their right to vote and have a say in the selection of their leaders. Rigging can result in the loss of legitimacy of the government and cause political instability.

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Public corporations are established mainly to provide essential services and amenities to the public. A public corporation is a government-owned entity that is established to operate in a commercial or business-like manner to provide essential goods or services to the public. Some examples of public corporations include utilities, transportation systems, and healthcare facilities. The main objective of establishing public corporations is to ensure that the government can provide essential goods and services to the public in a cost-effective and efficient manner. In many cases, these services are essential for the well-being and welfare of the public, and it may not be practical for private companies to provide them. For example, a public corporation may be established to provide electricity or water to the public, as these are essential services that are necessary for people to live their daily lives. The government may establish a public corporation to ensure that these services are available to everyone, regardless of their ability to pay. In summary, public corporations are established mainly to provide essential services and amenities to the public, as it may not be practical or feasible for private companies to provide them.

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The simple majority system of voting is also known as the "first-past-the-post" system. This system is used in many countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom. In this system, the candidate who receives the most votes in an election wins, regardless of whether or not they receive an absolute majority (i.e., more than 50% of the votes). For example, in a three-way race between candidates A, B, and C, if candidate A receives 40% of the votes, candidate B receives 35% of the votes, and candidate C receives 25% of the votes, then candidate A would win the election under the first-past-the-post system, even though 60% of the voters did not vote for candidate A. This system has both advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that it is simple and easy to understand, and it tends to produce clear winners who are seen as having a mandate to govern. However, one major disadvantage is that it can lead to a situation where a party or candidate can win an election without receiving a majority of the votes, which can be seen as undemocratic. Additionally, the first-past-the-post system can sometimes favor larger parties and lead to the exclusion of smaller parties and their supporters from the political process.

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One of the functions of political parties is to aggregate interest. This means that political parties bring together people who share similar views, beliefs and interests on social, economic and political issues. They act as a bridge between the government and the citizens by presenting their demands, preferences and concerns to the government. In this way, political parties provide a platform for citizens to participate in the democratic process and influence decision-making. Political parties also offer different policy options and programs, allowing voters to make informed choices during elections. Therefore, political parties play an important role in representing the diverse interests of the people and ensuring that the government is accountable to its citizens.

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One major characteristic of capitalism is that it results in an unjust and inequitable distribution of societal resources. Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately owned and operated for profit. This means that individuals and businesses are free to pursue their own economic interests, with little or no government intervention. Under capitalism, those who own the means of production, such as land, factories, and machinery, are able to accumulate wealth and power. This often leads to an unequal distribution of resources, with a small percentage of the population controlling a large percentage of the wealth. The result is often poverty and hardship for those who do not have access to the same resources and opportunities. Critics of capitalism argue that it is inherently unfair and leads to social and economic inequality. They argue that the pursuit of profit often comes at the expense of workers and the environment, and that it prioritizes the needs of the wealthy over the needs of the poor. Proponents of capitalism, on the other hand, argue that it encourages innovation, growth, and competition, leading to a higher standard of living for everyone.

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The referring of a political question to the electorate for a decision is known as a referendum. In a referendum, a specific question is put to the public, and voters are asked to choose 'yes' or 'no' in response. A referendum is a way to allow citizens to have a direct say in important decisions that affect them. Referendums can be held on a variety of topics, including constitutional changes, changes to laws, and government policies. They can be initiated by the government or by citizens themselves if they gather enough support. Elections, on the other hand, involve voters choosing between different candidates or political parties to decide who will hold political office. Mass media and public opinion may play a role in shaping election outcomes, but they are not the same as a referendum, which is a specific type of direct democracy.

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Under delegated legislation, the institution empowered to make laws is the executive. Delegated legislation refers to the process of creating laws and regulations by a body other than the legislature. The executive, which is responsible for the day-to-day running of government, is given the power to create delegated legislation by the legislature. This enables the executive to create rules and regulations that are more detailed and specific than those contained in primary legislation, and to respond more quickly to changing circumstances. However, delegated legislation is subject to certain limitations and controls to ensure that it is compatible with the principles of parliamentary democracy and the rule of law.

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The ultimate goal of the nationalists in Africa was to obtain political independence from their colonial masters. They sought to end colonial rule and establish self-governance for their respective countries. They wanted to have the power to determine their own economic, social, and political policies without interference from external forces. The nationalists believed that political independence was a crucial step towards the development and prosperity of their countries. They organized and mobilized their people towards this goal, using various strategies such as protests, strikes, and civil disobedience. The attainment of political independence was a significant achievement for African countries and marked the beginning of a new era in the continent's history.

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Citizenship can be acquired by naturalization. Naturalization is the process by which a foreign citizen or national becomes a citizen of another country. It typically involves meeting certain residency requirements, passing language and citizenship tests, and taking an oath of allegiance to the new country. This process is different from citizenship by birth or citizenship by descent, which are acquired automatically at birth or through a parent's citizenship, respectively.

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Impeachment and veto powers are features of the presidential system of government. In a presidential system, the president is both the head of state and the head of government. The president is directly elected by the people and has significant powers, including the power to veto legislation passed by the legislature. Veto power means that the president can reject a bill passed by the legislature, which prevents it from becoming law unless the legislature can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote. Impeachment is the process by which a president can be removed from office for wrongdoing or abuse of power. In a presidential system, the legislature has the power to initiate and carry out impeachment proceedings against the president. This serves as a system of checks and balances on the power of the president, ensuring that they are accountable for their actions. In summary, impeachment and veto powers are features of the presidential system of government, which is characterized by a strong and directly elected president with significant powers and accountability through checks and balances.

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The correct option is "The police and the courts" as they work together to protect the rights of the individual in a state. The police are responsible for enforcing the law and protecting citizens from harm, while the courts ensure that justice is served by interpreting and applying the law fairly. When someone's rights are violated, the police investigate the incident and the courts provide a forum for the victim to seek justice and hold the perpetrator accountable. Together, the police and the courts help to safeguard the rights of individuals and ensure that justice is served in society. The executive, legislature, lawmakers, soldiers, and lawyers also play important roles in governance, but they do not have the primary responsibility of protecting individual rights in a state.

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The pair of countries with an unwritten constitution is Britain and Israel. An unwritten constitution means that there is no single document that outlines the country's fundamental laws, principles, and practices. Instead, the constitution is derived from a collection of sources, such as laws, court decisions, customs, and conventions. In Britain, the constitution is unwritten because it has evolved over time, with no single document serving as the ultimate source of authority. Instead, the constitution is based on legal precedents, Acts of Parliament, and other sources that have developed over centuries. In Israel, the constitution is also unwritten, although there have been attempts to create a formal written constitution. The country's laws and principles are instead based on a collection of Basic Laws, court decisions, and parliamentary practices. Ghana and Nigeria both have written constitutions, while Germany and America have codified constitutions that are written down in a single document.

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One of the main principles of the presidential system is the separation of powers. In a presidential system of government, the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government are separate and independent of one another. This means that the president, who is the head of the executive branch, is separate from the legislature, which is responsible for making laws, and the judiciary, which is responsible for interpreting and applying the law. The separation of powers is intended to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful and potentially abusing its authority. By separating powers, each branch can act as a check on the other, ensuring that the government operates within the confines of the law and with the best interests of the people in mind. In contrast, in a parliamentary system of government, the executive is typically formed from the legislature, leading to a fusion of powers rather than separation. In summary, one of the main principles of the presidential system is the separation of powers, which helps to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful and abusing its authority.

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A political party is an organization whose ultimate aim is to gain control of government and implement its programs. Political parties are groups of people who come together with the purpose of contesting elections and holding power in the government. They seek to gain control of the government by winning elections and forming a government that can implement their policies and programs. The primary objective of a political party is to represent the interests of its members and the citizens of the country, by offering a set of policies and programs that are aimed at improving their lives.

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Senegal was a former French territory in West Africa. It gained its independence from France in 1960, along with several other former French colonies in the region. The Gambia was a British territory, Ghana was also a former British colony, and Liberia was never a colony of any European power, but rather established by freed slaves from the United States.

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In the pre-colonial period in most parts of West Africa, traditional rulers were appointed by the kingmakers. Kingmakers were influential people in the community, who had the power to select the next ruler based on factors such as lineage, personal character, bravery, wisdom, and other traditional values. The selection of a ruler was often a careful and elaborate process, and the kingmakers had to consult the oracle and other spiritual entities to ensure that the chosen candidate was acceptable to the gods and ancestors. Once selected, the ruler had enormous powers and responsibilities and was expected to govern with wisdom and justice.

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The Executive formulates and implements government policy. The executive branch of government is responsible for implementing and administering the laws and policies passed by the legislative branch of government. It is headed by the President or Prime Minister, who is assisted by ministers and other officials. The executive branch is responsible for enforcing laws, making decisions on government policies, and managing the day-to-day operations of the government. Therefore, the correct answer is "Executive".

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Under military governments, local authorities are empowered to issue bye-laws while state governments are empowered to issue edicts. An edict is a type of law or regulation issued by a government authority, particularly in states where the legal system is based on the English common law system. It is usually issued by an executive authority such as a governor or military administrator and has the force of law. In Nigeria, during military regimes, state governments were run by military administrators who had the power to issue edicts that could be used to govern the state. Bye-laws, on the other hand, are regulations or laws made by a local authority or community to regulate the affairs of the community. They are usually more specific than edicts and apply only to the area or community in which they are made.

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A country is said to be democratic if there are free and fair elections. In a democratic system of government, power is vested in the people, who exercise their right to choose their leaders through regular, free, and fair elections. These elections are conducted according to established rules and procedures, without interference or intimidation from any outside parties. All eligible citizens have the right to vote, without any form of discrimination or disenfranchisement. Gerrymandering, or manipulating the boundaries of electoral constituencies to gain political advantage, undermines the principle of free and fair elections. Citizens can be disenfranchised when their right to vote is restricted or taken away, such as through discriminatory laws or practices. Similarly, when the press is owned or controlled by the government, it can limit freedom of speech and the free flow of information, which are essential for a functioning democracy. In summary, a country is said to be democratic if there are free and fair elections, where all eligible citizens have the right to vote without discrimination or disenfranchisement. Gerrymandering, disenfranchisement, and government control of the press can undermine the principles of democracy.

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The method used by the French to slow down the development of nationalist activities in West Africa territories was "the indigenat." The indigenat was a system of colonial governance that gave French officials vast powers over the indigenous population in West Africa. Under the indigenat, French officials could detain, imprison, and punish individuals without trial or legal representation. The system was designed to maintain French control over the territories and prevent any nationalist activities that could threaten French colonial rule. It was a brutal and oppressive system that was in place until the mid-20th century when African countries began to gain independence from European colonial powers. Free press, free education, and certification were not effective methods used by the French to slow down the development of nationalist activities in West Africa territories.

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After the Committee stage, a bill will be said to have reached the report stage in Parliament. During the Committee stage, a bill is scrutinized in detail by a small group of MPs or Lords who make recommendations for changes and amendments to the bill. Once the Committee stage is complete, the changes are reported back to the whole House of Parliament. The report stage is the next stage in the legislative process. It is an opportunity for all MPs or Lords to examine the bill and debate any further amendments that have been proposed. The report stage is an important stage because it is the last chance for any significant changes to be made to the bill. After the report stage, the bill moves on to the Third reading, where it is debated and voted on for the final time in both Houses of Parliament before being sent to the monarch for royal assent.

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The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) is one of the specialized agencies of the United Nations Organization (UNO). It was established in 1945 and its headquarters is located in Rome, Italy. The FAO's main aim is to promote international cooperation in the fight against hunger and malnutrition, and to help countries develop their agricultural, forestry, and fisheries sectors. The FAO works with governments, civil society organizations, and other partners to develop policies, programs, and initiatives that improve food security and agricultural productivity. It provides technical assistance, capacity building, and information services to countries, and also conducts research and analysis to inform global policy debates on food and agriculture. As a specialized agency of the UNO, the FAO operates within the framework of the UN system and reports to the UN General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council. Its work is guided by the principles of the UN Charter, including the promotion of human rights, social progress, and economic development.

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The principle of checks and balances modifies the theory of "separation of powers". The theory of separation of powers is the idea that power should be divided among different branches of government to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and abusing its authority. The three branches of government are the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Each branch has its own specific powers and responsibilities, and they are meant to be equal in importance. However, the principle of checks and balances modifies this theory by providing a system of oversight and accountability between the branches. The principle of checks and balances ensures that each branch of government has some control over the other branches, creating a system of checks on power. For example, the legislative branch can check the power of the executive branch by controlling funding for its programs, while the judicial branch can check the power of the legislative branch by declaring laws unconstitutional. This system of checks and balances helps to ensure that no one branch of government becomes too powerful and that the rights and liberties of citizens are protected.

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In a unitary state, local authorities derive their powers from the central government's legislature. A unitary state is a system of government where the central government has all the power, and local authorities have only those powers that the central government grants them. The central government's legislature, which is usually a parliament or a congress, passes laws that apply to the entire country, including local governments. These laws establish the powers and functions of local authorities, such as city councils, municipal councils, or county councils. Local authorities are responsible for providing basic services to their constituents, such as water, sanitation, education, and healthcare, but they must do so within the framework of national laws and policies. In a unitary state, the central government has the power to dissolve or reorganize local authorities if it deems necessary. Local authorities may also be subject to oversight and control by central government agencies, such as audit offices or inspectorates, to ensure compliance with national laws and regulations. Overall, the central government's legislature is the ultimate source of power in a unitary state, and local authorities derive their powers from the laws and policies enacted by the central government.

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Autonomy of constituent units refers to the degree of self-governance given to regions, provinces or states within a larger country or state. This means that these units have some level of independence and authority to make their own decisions on matters that concern them. This feature is commonly associated with a confederal or federal government system, where power is shared between the central government and the constituent units. In a confederal government, the constituent units retain most of the power and authority, while in a federal government, there is a balance of power between the central government and the constituent units. A unitary government, on the other hand, is a system where all power and authority is held by the central government, with little or no autonomy given to the constituent units. A parliamentary government is a form of government where the executive branch (Prime Minister and Cabinet) is accountable to the legislative branch (Parliament). Autonomy of constituent units is not a defining feature of a parliamentary government.

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The 1885 Berlin Conference was convened to partition Africa among European powers. The conference was held at the invitation of Germany's Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and attended by representatives of 14 European nations, as well as the United States. The main goal of the conference was to establish rules for the colonization and trade of Africa among the European powers, without any input from African leaders. The conference is widely regarded as a pivotal moment in the colonization of Africa, as it led to the carving up of the continent into artificial states that did not take into account the ethnic, linguistic, and cultural boundaries of the indigenous populations.

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The anonymity of a civil servant means that they receive neither praise nor blame publicly. This means that their work is not recognized or criticized in public, and they are expected to remain neutral and impartial in their duties. Anonymity is an important aspect of the civil service because it allows civil servants to carry out their duties without fear of retribution or political interference. It also helps to ensure that their decisions are based on merit and not on personal relationships or political affiliations. However, this anonymity does not mean that civil servants are above the law or that they should not be held accountable for their actions. Civil servants are still subject to the same laws and regulations as everyone else and can be disciplined if they break the rules. They are also expected to follow the code of conduct for civil servants and maintain the highest standards of professionalism and integrity in their work.

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Traditional practices which can be sanctioned by public opinion when they are broken are called "customs". Customs are traditional practices or habits that are widely accepted and followed by a particular community or society. They are unwritten rules that have been passed down from generation to generation and are an integral part of the culture and identity of a community. Customs are often enforced through social pressure and public opinion, and individuals who violate them can face social sanctions such as shaming or exclusion from the community. Unlike decrees, local laws, or edicts, customs are not necessarily written down or enforced by a formal legal system, but they can be just as powerful in shaping individual behavior and social norms within a community.

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Capitalism is the economic system that allows the concentration of wealth in private hands. In a capitalist system, individuals and private companies own and control the means of production, such as land, factories, and businesses, and are motivated by profit. This means that some people and companies may become very wealthy, while others may struggle to make ends meet. Unlike in socialism or communism, where the government owns and controls the means of production, in capitalism, the government generally plays a minimal role in the economy, allowing the free market to determine the distribution of wealth. However, it is worth noting that the concentration of wealth in private hands is not necessarily inherent to capitalism, and many capitalist countries have implemented policies and regulations to mitigate this issue.

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The Loi Cadre, which means "basic law" in French, was a law passed in French West Africa in 1956 that outlined administrative and political reforms. It was part of France's effort to grant more autonomy to its African colonies while maintaining some control over their affairs. The Loi Cadre established local assemblies in each territory and gave them some power over local issues such as education, health, and agriculture. However, France retained control over foreign affairs, defense, and monetary policy. The Loi Cadre was an important step towards independence for French West Africa, as it allowed local leaders to gain experience in governing and provided a framework for future constitutional reforms. Therefore, the option that defines the Loi Care as "Outline laws for administrative and political reforms" is the correct answer.

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Fascism as a system of government originated in Italy. It emerged in the early 20th century, under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. Fascism is an authoritarian and nationalistic political ideology that emphasizes the importance of the state over the individual. It advocates for a centralized and strong government, with absolute power vested in a single leader or dictator. The origins of Italian fascism can be traced back to the aftermath of World War I, when Italy experienced economic and political instability. Mussolini and his followers capitalized on this instability, using violent tactics to gain power and suppress opposition. They promised to restore order and stability, and to make Italy a strong and proud nation once again. Under Mussolini's leadership, Italy became a one-party state, with the Fascist Party controlling all aspects of political, economic, and social life. Individual rights and freedoms were suppressed, and dissent was not tolerated. Fascism also promoted a cult of personality around its leaders, with propaganda and symbols designed to inspire loyalty and devotion. Although fascism originated in Italy, it spread to other parts of Europe and beyond, including Germany, where it was adopted by the Nazi Party under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. However, the origins of fascism can be traced back to Italy and the leadership of Mussolini.

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The foreign policy of West African states is mainly determined by their national interest. Each country's foreign policy is aimed at promoting and protecting its own interests, such as political, economic, and security interests. National interest is influenced by factors such as historical and cultural ties, economic factors, regional and international relations, and geopolitical considerations. West African countries have various interests that guide their foreign policies, such as economic development, regional integration, peace and security, and promotion of democracy and human rights.

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The ultimate goal of socialism is a classless society where everyone is equal and there are no rich or poor people. This means that there would be no social or economic classes and everyone would have equal access to resources and opportunities. Socialism believes that by eliminating social and economic inequalities, society can be more just and fair for everyone. On the other hand, totalitarianism is a political system where the government has complete control over all aspects of people's lives, and there is no individual freedom or liberty. Totalitarian regimes typically seek to maintain a rigid social hierarchy with a ruling elite at the top and a powerless population at the bottom. Capitalism, on the other hand, is an economic system where individuals and businesses own and control the means of production and distribution of goods and services. In a capitalist society, there are social and economic classes based on income, wealth, and power. Feudalism was a social and economic system that existed in medieval Europe, in which land was owned by lords and worked by peasants who were bound to the land. Feudalism was characterized by a rigid social hierarchy, with the king at the top and serfs at the bottom. In summary, the ultimate goal of socialism is a classless society where everyone is equal and has access to resources and opportunities. Totalitarianism, capitalism, and feudalism are different systems that do not aim for a classless society.

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The organ of the United Nations Organization (UNO) whose decision is binding on all members is the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UNO, and it settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized UN organs and specialized agencies. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges elected by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council for a term of nine years. Its decisions are binding on the parties involved in a dispute and are final and without appeal. The ICJ also has the power to issue provisional measures to prevent irreparable harm to the parties involved in a dispute pending the final resolution of the case. The ICJ plays an important role in promoting international law and resolving disputes peacefully through legal means. Its decisions are based on international law, including treaties and conventions, as well as customary international law and general principles of law recognized by civilized nations.

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Pressure groups use various techniques to achieve their objectives, such as lobbying, demonstrating, and strikes. However, they do not use coup détat, as this involves the sudden overthrow of a government through illegal or unconstitutional means. Coup détat is not a legitimate or legal technique for pressure groups to use, as it undermines democratic processes and institutions.

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A government headed by a person elected for a fixed period of time is referred to as a "republican" government. In such a government, the head of state (president) is elected by the people or their representatives for a fixed term, after which they may seek re-election if they choose to. This is different from a monarchical government where the head of state is usually a king or queen who ascends to the throne by birthright, and from a socialist government which is a type of economic system rather than a form of government. It is also different from a military government where the head of government is usually a military officer who assumes power through a coup or other means of force.

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(a) Concept of the rule of law

The rule of law is a principle of governance which holds that the law is supreme and that everybody, whether governor or governed, is equal before the law and subject to it. It was popularised by the British jurist A. V. Dicey. It means that no person should be punished except for a definite breach of the law established in the ordinary courts, that no one is above the law, and that the rights and liberties of citizens are best protected through the ordinary law of the land rather than through arbitrary power. Its three main pillars are:

• Supremacy of the law: government action must be based on law, not on the whims of rulers.
• Equality before the law: all persons, regardless of status, are subject to the same law and courts.
• Fundamental human rights: the liberties of the individual are guaranteed and enforceable in the courts.

(b)(i) Two advantages of the rule of law

1. Protection of fundamental human rights: it guarantees the freedom, life and property of citizens against arbitrary invasion by government or individuals.
2. Equality and justice: it ensures that all persons are treated alike before the law, promoting fairness and preventing discrimination and abuse of power.

(b)(ii) Two limitations of the rule of law

1. Immunity of certain officials: some office holders, such as the President, Governors and diplomats, enjoy legal immunity while in office and cannot be sued or prosecuted, which contradicts equality before the law.
2. State of emergency and delegated legislation: during emergencies, and through the powers given to the executive to make subsidiary laws, individual rights may be curtailed and ordinary legal processes suspended.

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The United Nations Organisation (UNO), founded in 1945 after the Second World War, rests on a number of basic principles set out in its Charter to guide the conduct of member states and the organisation itself:

1. Sovereign equality of all member states: all members, large or small, are regarded as equal and enjoy the same rights and status in the organisation.
2. Maintenance of international peace and security: members agree to settle their disputes by peaceful means and to refrain from the threat or use of force against other states.
3. Peaceful settlement of disputes: international disputes are to be resolved through negotiation, mediation, arbitration and other peaceful methods.
4. Non-interference in the internal (domestic) affairs of states: the UN does not intervene in matters that are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any member state.
5. Collective security: members undertake to act together against any aggressor to preserve peace and security.
6. Respect for fundamental human rights: the organisation is committed to promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without discrimination.
7. Self-determination and equal rights of peoples: it upholds the right of peoples to self-determination and the promotion of friendly relations among nations.
8. Good faith and international co-operation: members pledge to fulfil their Charter obligations faithfully and to co-operate in solving international economic, social and cultural problems.

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(a) Meaning of the State

The State is a politically organised body of people occupying a definite territory, having an organised government, and possessing sovereignty (supreme power) that is free from external control. It is a permanent political association that exercises authority over all persons and groups within its territory and has the power to make and enforce laws.

(b) Features (elements) of a State

1. Population: There must be a body of people, of no fixed number, living together within the state.
2. Territory: There must be a definite geographical area with recognised boundaries, including land, water and airspace.
3. Government: There must be an organised machinery through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out.
4. Sovereignty: The state must possess supreme power over its internal affairs and be free from external control (internal and external sovereignty).
5. Permanence: The state is a continuing and enduring institution; it does not die even though governments change.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The simple majority system (also called the first-past-the-post or plurality system) is a method of voting in which the candidate who scores the highest number of votes is declared the winner, even if the votes do not amount to more than half of the total votes cast.

Three merits of the simple majority system

1. Simplicity: it is easy to understand, operate and administer. The winner is simply the candidate with the most votes, so both voters and electoral officials find it straightforward.
2. Quick and cheap results: counting is fast and there is usually no need for a second round of voting, which saves time and reduces the cost of conducting elections.
3. Stable and strong government: it tends to produce a clear winner and often a single majority party, which reduces the need for coalition governments and makes for a strong, stable executive.

Three demerits of the simple majority system

1. It is undemocratic in effect: a candidate can win with less than half of the total votes, meaning the majority of voters may have voted against the winner.
2. Wasted votes: all votes cast for losing candidates count for nothing, so a large section of the electorate ends up without effective representation.
3. Poor representation of minorities: small parties with support spread across many constituencies may win few or no seats, so the composition of the legislature does not reflect the true spread of opinion in the country.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The 1976 Local Government Reform, introduced under the military government of General Murtala Mohammed and Olusegun Obasanjo, was the most far-reaching reform of local administration in Nigeria. Its major features were:

1. Uniform single-tier system: it established a uniform system of local government throughout the country, replacing the varied and confusing arrangements that had existed in the different regions.
2. Recognition as a third tier of government: local government was recognised as the third tier of government, distinct from the federal and state governments, with its own defined functions.
3. Direct statutory allocation of revenue: local governments were to receive statutory grants directly from the Federation Account and from the state governments, giving them a more reliable source of funds.
4. Population-based creation of councils: local government areas were created on the basis of population, generally within a range of about 150,000 to 800,000 people, to make them viable units of administration.
5. Elected councils and defined functions: elected councils were to run the local governments, and their functions (such as primary education, primary health care, markets, motor parks, roads and sanitation) were clearly spelt out.
6. Reduced traditional-ruler control: the role of traditional rulers in the day-to-day running of local government was reduced; they were given advisory roles through councils of chiefs rather than executive control.
7. Democratisation and mass participation: the reform aimed to bring government closer to the people and to encourage grassroots participation in decision-making and development.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Taking Nigeria as the example, several factors combined to produce political instability after independence in 1960:

1. Ethnicity and tribalism: strong loyalty to ethnic groups rather than to the nation created deep divisions, mutual suspicion and conflict among the major groups.
2. Rigged and disputed elections: massive electoral malpractices, such as those in the 1964 federal election and the 1965 Western Region election, led to violence, loss of confidence in the system and a breakdown of order.
3. Corruption and misrule: widespread corruption, nepotism and misuse of public funds by politicians bred public discontent and undermined the legitimacy of the government.
4. Military intervention in politics: frequent military coups and counter-coups, beginning with the coup of January 1966, repeatedly overthrew governments and disrupted constitutional rule.
5. Census and revenue controversies: disputes over the population census figures and over the sharing of national revenue heightened rivalry and distrust among the regions.
6. Weak national unity and the colonial legacy: the amalgamation of diverse peoples into one state by the colonial power, without a genuine sense of nationhood, left the country divided and prone to conflict, which eventually contributed to the civil war of 1967-1970.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Concept of the sovereignty of a State

Sovereignty is the supreme power or authority of a state to make and enforce laws within its territory and to conduct its affairs free from external control. It is the highest legal authority in a state, above which there is no other power. Sovereignty has two dimensions:

• Internal sovereignty: the supreme authority of the state over all persons, groups and institutions within its territory, giving it the exclusive right to make and enforce laws.
• External sovereignty: the independence of the state in its relations with other states, meaning it is not subject to the control of any foreign power.

Sovereignty is generally described as absolute, permanent, indivisible, all-comprehensive and exclusive. It is the mark that distinguishes a state from other associations.

(b) Five factors that limit the sovereignty of a state

1. International law and treaties: obligations under international agreements and conventions restrict what a state may lawfully do.
2. Membership of international organisations: bodies such as the United Nations, ECOWAS and the African Union impose rules and decisions that member states must obey.
3. World public opinion: the pressure of global opinion and diplomatic reactions can compel a state to modify its conduct.
4. Economic dependence: reliance on foreign aid, loans and trade, and the conditions attached by donors and bodies like the IMF and World Bank, limit a state's freedom of action.
5. The constitution and fundamental human rights: the provisions of the constitution and the guaranteed rights of citizens place legal limits on the exercise of state power.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Secretary of State for the Colonies was a British cabinet minister based in London who was in overall charge of the administration of the British colonies, including Nigeria. He was the link between the colonies and the British government and Parliament. His functions were:

1. Overall supervision of the colonies: he was responsible to the British Parliament for the general administration and good government of all the colonies under his ministry.
2. Formulation of colonial policy: he formulated and directed the colonial policies to be carried out by the Governors in the colonies.
3. Appointment and control of Governors: he advised the Crown on the appointment, transfer and discipline of Governors and other senior colonial officials, and gave them instructions.
4. Approval of laws and constitutions: he reviewed and approved (or rejected) laws, ordinances and constitutional proposals from the colonies, and could disallow legislation passed by colonial legislatures.
5. Financial oversight: he supervised the finances of the colonies and approved their budgets and major expenditure.
6. Link with Parliament: he answered questions in Parliament concerning the colonies and defended colonial policy before the British legislature.
7. Channel of communication: he served as the official channel of correspondence between the colonial governments and the British government.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Lyttleton Constitution of 1954, named after the Secretary of State for the Colonies Oliver Lyttleton, was a landmark in Nigeria's constitutional development. Its importance lies in the following:

1. Established true federalism: it firmly established federalism in Nigeria, clearly dividing powers between the central government and the regions through exclusive, concurrent and residual lists. It is regarded as the first genuinely federal constitution in Nigeria.
2. Regional autonomy: it granted greater autonomy to the Eastern, Western and Northern Regions, each with its own government, giving the regions more control over their own affairs.
3. Regionalisation of the public/civil service and judiciary: it provided for the regionalisation of the civil service, the judiciary and the marketing boards, strengthening the powers of the regions.
4. Lagos as federal territory: it made Lagos a federal territory, separate from the Western Region, to serve as the neutral seat of the central government.
5. Provision for premiers: it created the office of Premier as the head of government in each region, enhancing regional political leadership.
6. Foundation for self-government and independence: it prepared the ground for regional self-government (the East and West in 1957, the North in 1959) and ultimately for national independence in 1960. It also set the pattern of federalism that Nigeria has retained.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Age-grades were associations of people of roughly the same age, especially common in the segmentary (stateless) societies of pre-colonial Nigeria such as Igboland. They performed important administrative, social and defence functions in the community.

Functions of the age-grades in pre-colonial administration

1. Defence and security: the younger and stronger age-grades formed the fighting force of the community, defending it against external attacks and maintaining internal security.
2. Maintenance of law and order: they acted as a police force, enforcing the decisions and laws of the community, arresting offenders and punishing those who broke the rules.
3. Execution of public works: they provided communal labour for the construction and maintenance of roads, markets, bridges, streams and public buildings.
4. Administration and decision-making: senior age-grades took part in the governing of the community, deliberating on important matters and helping to formulate and implement decisions.
5. Settlement of disputes: they helped to settle quarrels and minor disputes among members of the community, promoting peace and harmony.
6. Sanitation and environmental care: they kept the community clean by clearing bushes, keeping streams and paths tidy and enforcing environmental rules.
7. Socialisation and enforcement of morals: they upheld the customs, traditions and moral standards of the community and disciplined members who behaved wrongly.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The struggle of Nigerian and other African nationalists for political independence was helped not only by internal factors but also by several developments outside the continent. The main external factors were:

1. The Second World War (1939-1945): African ex-servicemen who fought alongside Europeans returned home more politically aware, having seen that the white man was not invincible, and they demanded freedom and better conditions.
2. The Atlantic Charter (1941): the declaration by Churchill and Roosevelt affirming the right of all peoples to choose their own form of government encouraged nationalists to demand self-determination.
3. The formation of the United Nations Organisation: the UN Charter upheld the principle of self-determination and independence of colonial peoples, and the organisation put pressure on colonial powers to grant independence.
4. The independence of India and Pakistan (1947): the success of Asian nationalists in winning freedom from British rule inspired and encouraged African nationalists to intensify their own struggle.
5. Activities of Pan-Africanism: Pan-African congresses and leaders abroad, together with figures such as Marcus Garvey and W. E. B. Du Bois, created a spirit of black solidarity and fuelled the demand for freedom.
6. Rise of anti-colonial world opinion: the two new super-powers, the United States and the Soviet Union, were both opposed to colonialism, and growing world opinion condemned imperial rule.
7. Influence of Western education: nationalists educated in Britain and America absorbed liberal and democratic ideas of liberty and equality which they used to justify their demand for self-government.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Since independence, Africa has been the centre-piece of Nigeria's foreign policy, meaning that Nigeria gives first priority to the interests and welfare of the African continent. Four ways in which this has been demonstrated are:

1. Leading role in forming continental and regional bodies: Nigeria was a founding and leading member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union (AU), and spearheaded the creation of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in 1975 to promote African unity and integration.
2. Support for the liberation of African states: Nigeria gave moral, material and financial support to liberation movements, and was in the forefront of the struggle against apartheid and colonialism in Southern Africa, giving strong backing to countries such as Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa.
3. Peacekeeping and conflict resolution in Africa: Nigeria contributed troops and resources to peacekeeping operations, notably the ECOMOG interventions in Liberia and Sierra Leone, and to numerous other peace efforts on the continent.
4. Financial and technical assistance to African countries: Nigeria extended aid, loans and technical help to fellow African states, and established bodies such as the Nigerian Trust Fund and the Technical Aid Corps to provide skilled personnel and development assistance across Africa.