WAEC SSCE - Government - 2013

Akọwa Nkọwa

Delegated legislation is a process where the power to make laws is passed from the legislative body to another entity, such as an administrative agency. One criticism against delegated legislation is that it encroaches on parliamentary power. This means that it takes away the responsibility of parliament to create laws and instead gives that power to other bodies. This can be seen as undemocratic because the public elects members of parliament to represent them and make decisions on their behalf. Delegated legislation can also be criticized for giving too much power to the executive branch, as well as for its potential to be influenced by special interest groups or individuals. However, it is important to note that delegated legislation can also be useful in allowing for quicker, more efficient decision-making in certain areas.

Akọwa Nkọwa

In a unitary state, the governmental powers are concentrated at the center. This means that the central government has the authority to make laws and policies that apply to the entire country, and can delegate certain powers to local and regional governments. However, these governments do not have the same level of autonomy as they would in a federal state, where governmental powers are more evenly distributed between the central government and the component units (such as states or provinces). In a unitary state, the central government has the final say in matters such as taxation, defense, and foreign policy, and can override decisions made by local or regional governments if necessary.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A writ of Mandamus is not a source of a country's constitution. A writ of Mandamus is a court order that directs a government official to perform a specific duty. On the other hand, a country's constitution is a set of fundamental principles and rules that govern a nation. The sources of a constitution may include legislative decisions, past constitutions, and judicial precedents. However, a writ of Mandamus is not a source of a constitution as it is a legal remedy used to enforce existing laws and regulations rather than to establish new constitutional principles.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Tribunal of the Community is not an organ of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The OAU was established in 1963 as a continental organization to promote unity and cooperation among African states. Its organs include the Assembly of Heads of State and Government, Council of Ministers, and Secretariat. The Tribunal of the Community, on the other hand, refers to a judicial body established under the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), which is a separate regional organization from the OAU.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Parliamentary filibuster refers to a delay method of prolonging debates in parliament. It is a parliamentary procedure where a member of parliament speaks for a long time in order to delay or prevent the passing of a bill or motion. The purpose of a filibuster is to give the speaker enough time to persuade other members of parliament to change their votes or to attract public attention to a particular issue. Filibusters can be used as a tool by the minority party in parliament to prevent the majority party from passing legislation that they disagree with.

Akọwa Nkọwa

An obligation of a citizen is something that they are required to do as part of their duty to their country. Voting at elections is an obligation of a citizen. It is a civic duty and responsibility to vote, as it allows citizens to have a say in who their leaders are and what policies are put in place. By voting, citizens also help to ensure that the democratic process is upheld and that the government remains accountable to the people. Therefore, the correct option is "Voting at elections".

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Government can be defined as the study of how people rule themselves. This includes the structures, processes, and institutions through which individuals and groups exercise power and authority to make decisions and manage public affairs. It encompasses different systems of governance, such as presidential and cabinet systems, as well as the principles and values that underpin them, such as democracy, accountability, and the rule of law. The study of government also involves examining the relationships between citizens and the state, as well as the interactions between different levels and branches of government.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The primary objective of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is to maintain world peace. The UNO is an international organization that was founded in 1945 after World War II with the aim of promoting cooperation between nations and preventing future conflicts. One of the main purposes of the UNO is to maintain international peace and security through peaceful means, such as negotiation, mediation, and arbitration. The UNO also works towards economic and social development, human rights protection, and environmental sustainability, among other goals. However, maintaining world peace is the primary objective of the UNO, which it achieves through a range of measures, including peacekeeping missions, disarmament, and conflict resolution.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The function performed by the executive is the implementation of policies. The executive branch of government is responsible for enforcing the laws and policies made by the legislative branch. The executive is made up of the President or Prime Minister, along with other members of the Cabinet or Council of Ministers. Their job is to put into action the laws passed by the legislative branch and to develop policies and programs that serve the interests of the country and its citizens. This involves managing the day-to-day operations of the government and overseeing the various government agencies and departments.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

An election which involves the use of an electoral college is an indirect election. In this type of election, the people do not directly vote for the candidate they want to be elected. Instead, the people vote for representatives or electors who will then cast their votes for the candidate on behalf of the people. The electoral college is a group of people who are selected to represent the people in voting for the President in the United States.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Public opinion enables a government to know the feeling of the masses. Public opinion is the collective view of the citizens of a country on a particular issue. When the government considers public opinion, it is able to understand the needs, aspirations, and concerns of the citizens. This helps the government to make better policies that align with the interests of the people. In essence, public opinion serves as feedback for the government to make informed decisions that reflect the views of the citizens.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The correct answer is the Organization of African Unity. This organization was established on May 25, 1963, and had the primary objective of promoting unity and solidarity among African states, as well as coordinating their efforts to achieve a better life for the people of Africa. All West African countries belonged to this organization until it was replaced by the African Union on July 9, 2002. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group of oil-producing countries, while the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance primarily comprising North American and European countries. The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states located primarily in Europe.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

A multi-party system often leads to the formation of a coalition government. This happens when no single party has a majority in the legislature, and two or more parties come together to form a government. In such a system, coalition governments are common, as they allow different parties to work together towards common goals and pass legislation. The parties in a coalition government may have different ideologies, but they come together to form a majority and govern the country. This system is different from a one-party system, where there is only one political party in power.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The statement that is true of a Public Corporation is that it is set up to provide essential services. A public corporation is a legal entity that is owned and controlled by the government and established to provide essential services to the public. Examples of public corporations include utility companies, transportation authorities, and public hospitals. The main purpose of a public corporation is to provide essential services that are necessary for the well-being of the public, such as access to clean water and electricity, public transportation, and healthcare services. Unlike private corporations, public corporations are not established to make a profit for shareholders, but rather to provide services to the public at a reasonable cost. While the government may establish a public corporation through a legal instrument such as a bye-law, it is not owned by the Minister of Finance or any other individual or group. Rather, it is owned by the government and operates under the supervision of a board of directors or other governing body appointed by the government. In summary, a public corporation is a government-owned entity that is established to provide essential services to the public at a reasonable cost, and is not set up to make a profit for shareholders.

Akọwa Nkọwa

To ensure a free and fair election, it is important to guarantee the security of electoral officers and materials. This means that measures should be taken to ensure that there is no interference or intimidation from any party or group during the election process. Security personnel should be deployed to polling units to ensure that voters can exercise their right to vote without fear or intimidation. Additionally, there should be adequate protection for electoral officers and materials to prevent them from being tampered with or stolen. This helps to ensure that the election results are a true reflection of the will of the people and not influenced by external factors.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The major disadvantage of the Indirect Rule System was that the British failed to give qualitative education to Africans. Under the Indirect Rule System, the British ruled through indigenous authorities, who were responsible for implementing British policies at the local level. The British believed that these traditional rulers had a better understanding of local customs and were better suited to govern the people. However, the British did not invest in providing education and training to these traditional rulers. As a result, the quality of governance at the local level suffered, and the people were not able to benefit from the advantages of modernization and development that came with British colonial rule.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Fundamental human rights seek to promote the dignity of human beings. Human rights are basic rights and freedoms that every person is entitled to, simply because they are human. These rights include the right to life, liberty, equality, and freedom of expression, among others. The purpose of fundamental human rights is to protect individuals from abuses by those in power, including governments, corporations, or other individuals. They aim to ensure that everyone is treated fairly and with respect, regardless of their gender, race, religion, or any other characteristic. Human rights promote the idea that every individual is valuable and deserves to be treated with dignity and respect. They are essential for creating a just and equitable society and play a crucial role in building a peaceful and prosperous world. Therefore, promoting the dignity of man is the primary goal of fundamental human rights. They seek to create a society where everyone is treated equally, and their rights and freedoms are respected and protected.

Akọwa Nkọwa

When a court of law declares an action of the executive ultra-vires, it means that the action is illegal and above the power given to the executive by law. The term "ultra-vires" means "beyond the powers" in Latin. The court has determined that the executive has acted outside the scope of its legal authority, and therefore the action is considered null and void. The court's decision invalidates the executive's action and prevents it from being implemented. The legislature may need to pass a new law to give the executive the power to take the action, but the court's ruling means that the current action was not authorized by law.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Monarchy is a type of government in which a single person, usually a king or a queen, has complete power over the country. The monarch makes all the important decisions, and their rule is usually hereditary, meaning it is passed down through their family. Therefore, monarchy means a government headed by a king or queen.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Totalitarianism means a government headed by a dictator. In a totalitarian state, the government exercises complete control over every aspect of its citizens' lives, including political, economic, social, and cultural activities. The dictator, who usually comes to power through force or propaganda, has absolute authority and makes all the important decisions. The people have no say in government policies, and dissent is not tolerated. Totalitarian regimes are characterized by repression, censorship, and the use of violence to maintain power. The goal of a totalitarian government is to maintain control over its citizens and to expand its influence over other nations.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents that determine the powers and duties of a government and guarantees certain rights to the citizens. The constitution outlines the framework for the government, and it is considered the supreme law of the land. Out of the four options listed, the answer is "Coup d'etat" as it is not within the scope of a constitution. A coup d'état is an illegal seizure of power by a group or individual, usually by force or violence. It is not a legitimate or legal means of acquiring power, and it goes against the principles of a constitution. On the other hand, the constitution outlines the fundamental human rights that citizens are entitled to, the organs of government, such as the legislature, executive, and judiciary, and the preamble, which sets out the objectives and purposes of the constitution. Therefore, a constitution focuses on creating a legal and legitimate framework for governance and protecting the rights of citizens, while a coup d'état is an illegal and unconstitutional method of seizing power.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The problem of civil service that is referred to in the question is red-tapism. Red-tapism is a bureaucratic practice that involves excessive adherence to rules and regulations, often resulting in delays, inefficiencies, and frustration for the public. It can lead to slow decision-making, lack of flexibility, and low productivity. This is a common problem in civil service, particularly in countries with a large and complex bureaucracy. It can hinder the effective delivery of public services and undermine public trust in government.

Akọwa Nkọwa

In a parliamentary system of government, the executive branch is led by a Prime Minister who is also a member of parliament. This means that collective responsibility is emphasized, as the Prime Minister and their cabinet are accountable to parliament for their actions. The system encourages a fusion of powers, as there is no clear separation between the legislative and executive branches. This allows for greater collaboration and cooperation between the branches, as well as the ability for the government to act quickly in response to challenges. In contrast to a presidential system, there is no Executive President in a parliamentary system. Instead, the head of state is typically a ceremonial figurehead, such as a monarch or president with limited powers. Finally, the Prime Minister is not the head of the judiciary in a parliamentary system. The judiciary is typically an independent branch of government with its own powers and responsibilities.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The anonymity in the civil service means that a civil servant receives neither praise nor blame. Anonymity refers to the state of being anonymous, where one's identity is not known or disclosed. In the context of civil service, it means that civil servants should carry out their duties without seeking recognition or public attention for their actions. The anonymity of civil servants is meant to promote impartiality and professionalism in the civil service. It also means that civil servants are accountable to the government, rather than to the public. Therefore, civil servants should carry out their duties objectively and without bias, and should be held accountable for their actions if they fail to do so.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

Bicameralism is a system of government where legislative powers are vested in two separate chambers or houses. This system is adopted to prevent arbitrary law making and ensure checks and balances within the legislative arm of government. The two chambers have different compositions, functions, and terms of office, which helps to ensure that laws are properly scrutinized, debated and reviewed before they are passed. This helps to ensure that no single group or individual has too much power or influence, and that the interests of different sections of society are represented. In summary, bicameralism is adopted to ensure a more effective and accountable system of government.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A duty of a good citizen is paying taxes regularly. This means that citizens have a responsibility to contribute to the development and maintenance of their country by paying their taxes regularly and on time. Taxes are a major source of revenue for the government and are used to provide essential services such as healthcare, education, infrastructure, and security. By fulfilling this duty, citizens are able to support the government in its efforts to provide for the common good of all.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Centralization of power is a feature of a unitary system. In a unitary system, the central government holds all the power and authority, and it delegates only some responsibilities to the lower levels of government such as states or provinces. The central government has the power to create, dissolve or modify the lower levels of government and can also overrule their decisions. This is different from a federal system where power is shared between the central government and the states or provinces.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The question is asking to identify the option that is not a problem facing local governments in West Africa. The correct answer is "obtaining loans from banks." The other three options - shortage of trained personnel, nepotism, and corruption - are common problems faced by local governments in West Africa. Shortage of trained personnel can lead to inefficiency and poor service delivery, while nepotism and corruption can undermine public trust and confidence in the government. However, obtaining loans from banks is not typically listed as a major problem for local governments in the region.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The function performed by the electoral commission is delimiting the country into constituencies. Delimiting the country into constituencies refers to the process of dividing a country into smaller geographical areas, known as constituencies, for the purpose of electing representatives to a legislative body, such as a parliament or congress. This process is important for ensuring that each citizen's vote carries equal weight and that elected officials represent a fair and balanced distribution of the population. The electoral commission is responsible for overseeing the delimitation process and ensuring that it is carried out in a transparent and impartial manner. This involves using demographic data and other relevant information to determine the appropriate size and boundaries of each constituency, as well as ensuring that constituencies are not gerrymandered to favor one political party or group over another. While the electoral commission may also be involved in other aspects of the electoral process, such as voter registration and the conduct of elections themselves, delimiting the country into constituencies is a key function that helps to ensure fair and representative elections.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Constitutionalism implies that leaders of a country should act according to the stipulations of the constitution. In other words, the constitution is seen as the supreme law of the land, and leaders are expected to abide by its provisions. This means that leaders are not above the law, and their actions must be in line with what the constitution allows. Constitutionalism is a fundamental aspect of democracy and ensures that the rule of law is upheld. It also guarantees that the rights of citizens are protected and that government power is limited and regulated.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A territorial boundary is a feature of a state. A state is defined as a politically organized territory with a permanent population, a government, and a defined territory. The territorial boundary is the physical and legal limit of the state's sovereignty, separating it from other states and defining the extent of its authority over its territory and population. Without a defined territorial boundary, a state cannot effectively exercise its power and carry out its functions, making this a crucial feature of any state. Pursuance of sectional interests or colonial experience are not features of a state, and temporary existence is not a desirable feature for a stable and functional state.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Public corporations are set up by an Act of Parliament. This means that the legislative arm of government is responsible for creating the legal framework for the establishment, structure, and operation of public corporations. The Act provides the guidelines and objectives for the corporation, including its powers and limitations. The government may also appoint a board of directors to oversee the operations of the corporation, but the ultimate authority and responsibility lie with the Parliament that established it. The establishment of public corporations aims to provide essential services or perform specific functions on behalf of the government or society as a whole.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A confederation is a system of government where the constituent units (such as states or provinces) retain a large degree of autonomy and the central government has limited powers. Therefore, the feature of a confederation is that there is a legal right of secession, which means that the constituent units have the legal right to withdraw from the confederation if they so desire. This feature is important because it helps to prevent the central government from becoming too powerful and ensures that the constituent units have a say in the affairs of the confederation.

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Communism as a political ideology seeks to eliminate all forms of socio-economic inequalities. It aims to establish a society where resources and wealth are owned and controlled collectively, rather than by individuals or private entities. This is achieved through the abolition of private property, the establishment of a planned economy, and the creation of a classless society. The ultimate goal of communism is to create a society in which everyone's needs are met and everyone has equal access to resources and opportunities.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The system of government in which the president acts as the head of state and the head of government is the presidential system. In this system, the president is elected by the people and exercises executive powers independently of the legislature. The president is responsible for implementing the laws, administering the government and making executive decisions. The presidential system is commonly used in countries like the United States, Mexico, Brazil, and Nigeria.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The geographical units into which a country is divided for the purpose of elections are called constituencies. These are sub-divisions of a country that are created to ensure that every area of the country is represented in the government. Each constituency has a specific number of voters and elects a representative to serve in the legislative body of the country. The boundaries of constituencies are often determined by population density and demographic factors such as ethnicity and language spoken. The number of constituencies varies from country to country and may be redrawn periodically to reflect changes in population.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Citizens can be deprived of their rights during emergency periods. Emergency periods are times when the government has declared a state of emergency due to a crisis such as war, natural disasters, or other threats to public safety. During these periods, the government may suspend certain rights and freedoms to ensure the safety and security of its citizens. For example, curfews may be imposed, freedom of assembly and speech may be restricted, and the government may have the power to detain individuals without trial. While this may be necessary in times of crisis, it is important to ensure that citizens' rights are restored once the emergency is over and that the government does not abuse its power.

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The organ of the United Nations Organization that coordinates the activities of its specialized agencies is the Economic and Social Council. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is one of the six main organs of the United Nations and serves as a central forum for discussing international economic and social issues and formulating policy recommendations. It is responsible for promoting higher standards of living, full employment, and economic and social progress; identifying solutions to international economic, social and health problems; and facilitating international cultural and educational cooperation. The ECOSOC coordinates the work of the United Nations specialized agencies, such as the World Health Organization and the International Labor Organization, and also commissions regional economic and social development programs.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The major duties of the executive arm of government include the formation and implementation of policies. The executive branch of government is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws, managing public affairs, and overseeing the day-to-day operations of the government. The executive is usually headed by the president, prime minister, or governor, depending on the form of government in a country. In this capacity, the executive branch works closely with the other arms of government, particularly the legislature, to develop and implement policies that benefit the citizens. Thus, the correct answer is the executive.

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A British colony refers to a territory that was acquired by the British through settlement or conquest, and that is directly under the control of the British government. It is an area that is ruled and governed by the British, and its people are subject to British law and authority. This means that the British have the power to make decisions and enforce laws in the colony, and that the people living in the colony are not self-governing or fully independent.

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A factor in the formation of a federation is the "desire for a union". This implies that the desire of different regions or states to come together as one political entity with shared political and economic goals can lead to the formation of a federation. This can be driven by factors such as the need for stronger defense, economic integration, or the desire for greater political representation. The other options, such as absence of a common enemy, small population, and geographical incontiguity, are not necessarily factors that would lead to the formation of a federation.

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Organisational structure of a political party

A political party is usually organised as a hierarchy of committees stretching from the national level down to the grassroots. The typical structure is as follows:

1. National level. The National Convention is the supreme organ; it makes party policy, amends the party constitution and elects national officers. Between conventions the National Executive Committee, headed by the National Chairman and National Secretary, runs the party's affairs.
2. State or Regional level. The State Executive Committee, headed by a State Chairman and Secretary, coordinates party activities within the state and links it to the national headquarters.
3. Local government or constituency level. Local branch committees organise the party within each local government area or constituency.
4. Ward level. Ward committees mobilise members and voters within the wards.
5. Grassroots or polling-unit level. The smallest unit, made up of the ordinary card-carrying members, is where the party recruits members and canvasses votes.

The party also maintains organs such as the Board of Trustees, the caucus and various standing committees (finance, disciplinary, publicity), together with auxiliary youth and women's wings.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Meaning of Indirect Rule

Indirect Rule was the system of colonial administration adopted by the British, especially by Lord Lugard in Nigeria, under which the colony was governed through the existing traditional rulers and native institutions rather than directly by British officials. The traditional rulers (emirs, obas and chiefs) retained their thrones and continued to rule their people, but they did so under the supervision, guidance and control of British Residents and District Officers. Native Authorities, Native Courts and Native Treasuries were established to carry out local administration, collect taxes and maintain order in accordance with colonial policy.

(b) Reasons the policy was criticised

1. It preserved and strengthened autocratic, undemocratic traditional rulers instead of developing modern democratic institutions.
2. It excluded the educated elite from the administration, breeding resentment among the emerging nationalists.
3. It froze society by making chiefs agents of colonial rule, so they often became unpopular tax collectors and lost the confidence of their people.
4. It worked poorly in areas without strong centralised chieftaincies (the East and parts of the West), where warrant chiefs had to be imposed artificially.
5. It slowed political, social and educational development because Britain governed cheaply through others rather than investing in the people.
6. It divided the country by treating each area differently and hindered the growth of a common national outlook.

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Importance of the Brazzaville Conference of 1944 in the constitutional development of French West Africa

The Brazzaville Conference, convened by General de Gaulle's Free French government in 1944, marked a turning point in France's relationship with her African colonies. Its importance includes:

1. Reform of colonial policy. It signalled France's intention to reform, though not immediately abandon, colonial rule and to grant Africans a greater role in their own affairs.
2. Representation in the French Parliament. It recommended that the African colonies send elected representatives to the French Constituent Assembly and Parliament in Paris, drawing Africans into central law-making.
3. Abolition of forced labour and the indigenat. It led to the ending of forced labour and the repressive indigenat (native code) that had subjected Africans to arbitrary punishment.
4. Extension of citizenship rights. It paved the way for extending French citizenship and civil rights to Africans, culminating in the 1946 constitution and the French Union.
5. Creation of local assemblies. It encouraged the establishment of territorial and representative assemblies in the colonies, beginning local political participation.
6. Association rather than independence. Although it ruled out immediate self-government, it committed France to a closer partnership within a French community, which later evolved toward autonomy.
7. Stimulus to political awakening. The reforms encouraged the formation of political parties and trade unions and quickened nationalist consciousness in French West Africa.

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(a) De-concentration of power

De-concentration of power is a form of administrative decentralisation in which the central government transfers some duties, functions and officials to its branch or field offices in the regions, states or local areas. However, the central government retains full control and authority over such offices. The officers at the local level carry out the directives of the central authority and are accountable to it; they do not possess independent constitutional powers.

(b) Importance of decentralisation

(i) It brings government nearer to the people and enables government to understand local problems better.

(ii) It ensures quick response to the needs and problems of the local people.

(iii) It reduces the volume of work and pressure on the central government, thereby improving efficiency.

(iv) It encourages wider participation of citizens in government and political affairs.

(v) It mobilises the grassroots for national development.

(vi) It encourages and utilises local initiatives, resources and talents for community development.

(vii) It provides a training ground for future political leaders and administrators.

(viii) It protects the interests of minority groups and communities.

(ix) It promotes healthy competition among the various local or regional units in development.

(x) It promotes balanced development, since each local unit can attend to its own priorities.

Akọwa Nkọwa

None

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Government as an art of governing

Government as an art of governing refers to the actual practice or process of administering the affairs of the state, that is, the way in which power is acquired and used to make and enforce decisions, maintain order and provide for the needs of the people. In this sense government means the exercise of authority and the machinery of ruling a people.

(b) Duties of government

1. Maintenance of law and order. Government protects life and property and keeps internal peace through the police and the courts.
2. Defence of the state. It safeguards the territory and sovereignty of the state against external attack.
3. Provision of social amenities and infrastructure. It supplies education, health, water, roads and other services.
4. Protection of citizens' rights. It guarantees and defends the fundamental rights and freedoms of the people.
5. Regulation of the economy. It manages and develops the economy through appropriate policies.

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(a) Constitution

A constitution is the body of fundamental rules, principles and conventions, whether written or unwritten, according to which a state is governed. It establishes the organs of government, defines and distributes their powers, and states the rights and duties of citizens and the relationship between the government and the governed.

(b) Why some countries use written constitutions

1. Clarity and certainty. The rules of government are set out in one document and can be easily consulted, reducing disputes over what the law is.
2. Protection of rights. Fundamental human rights are clearly stated and entrenched against easy violation.
3. Suitability for federations. A written constitution clearly divides powers between the central and component governments, essential in a federal state.
4. Stability and permanence. A rigid written document is not easily changed at the whim of those in power.
5. Guide to the organs of government. It clearly defines and limits the powers of the legislature, executive and judiciary, preventing abuse.
6. Reference for new states. Newly independent or reconstituted states adopt a written constitution to establish an agreed framework of government.
7. Basis for judicial review. It provides a clear standard against which the courts can test the validity of laws and official acts.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Nigeria's relations with her neighbouring states (Republic of Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroon) have been shaped by several factors:

1. Geographical contiguity and shared borders: The long, porous land borders make cooperation on trade, migration and security unavoidable.
2. Common colonial and cultural ties: Ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Kanuri and Yoruba straddle the borders, creating kinship and cultural bonds that promote friendly relations.
3. Economic interdependence: Cross-border trade, Nigeria's large market, and shared use of resources like the Chad Basin and River Niger bind the states together.
4. Good-neighbourliness and non-interference: Nigeria's foreign policy principle of respecting the sovereignty and territorial integrity of neighbours guides its conduct.
5. Regional integration through ECOWAS: Membership of the Economic Community of West African States promotes free movement, economic cooperation and collective decision-making.
6. Security and defence concerns: Cross-border crimes, insurgency (for example Boko Haram) and smuggling have compelled joint military action such as the Multinational Joint Task Force.
7. Boundary disputes: Disagreements such as the Bakassi Peninsula dispute with Cameroon, resolved by the International Court of Justice, have affected relations.
8. Big-brother/leadership role: Nigeria's size, population and resources give it a leadership position, and it often extends aid and assistance to smaller neighbours.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Concurrent functions in a federation

Concurrent functions (the concurrent list) are the subjects and functions on which both the central (federal) government and the component (regional or state) governments are empowered to make laws. Examples include education, health, agriculture and roads. Where a state law conflicts with a federal law on a concurrent matter, the federal law prevails and the state law is void to the extent of the inconsistency.

(b) Features of a confederal system of government

1. Weak central authority. The central government is weak and depends on the component states for its powers.
2. Sovereignty resides in the units. The component states retain their sovereignty and independence.
3. Right of secession. Member states are free to withdraw from the union whenever they wish.
4. The centre depends on the units for finance. The central body has no direct power of taxation over citizens and relies on contributions from the states.
5. Central decisions may be ignored. The units can refuse to carry out or can nullify the decisions of the central government.
6. Union by agreement. The confederation is formed by treaty or agreement among independent states, mainly for defence and economic purposes.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Macpherson Constitution of 1951, though more liberal than its predecessors, collapsed within a few years. The following are six reasons for its breakdown:

1. Excessive regionalism: The constitution strengthened the three regions so greatly that regional and ethnic loyalty grew stronger than national unity, weakening the central government.
2. The self-government crisis of 1953: Anthony Enahoro's motion for self-government in 1956 was opposed by Northern members, who tabled a delaying amendment; the resulting quarrel between the leaders split the House.
3. The Kano riots of 1953: The bitter exchanges over the self-government motion provoked violent riots in Kano between Northerners and Southerners, deepening mutual distrust.
4. The Eastern Region crisis: The dispute within the NCNC between Nnamdi Azikiwe and Professor Eyo Ita over control of the Eastern regional government created a deadlock that the rigid constitution could not resolve.
5. Weak central legislature and executive: Ministers were appointed without real portfolios or executive authority, so the constitution failed to satisfy nationalist demands for genuine responsible government.
6. Absence of consensus among nationalist leaders: The leaders of the three regions could not agree on the pace and form of constitutional advance, making cooperation at the centre impossible.

These pressures forced the summoning of the 1953 London Constitutional Conference, which produced the Lyttleton (federal) Constitution of 1954 in its place.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Factors that led to the collapse of the West African Students' Union (WASU) before the end of the Second World War

1. Financial difficulties. WASU depended largely on subscriptions and donations; inadequate and irregular funding crippled its activities.
2. Disruption by the Second World War. The war interrupted travel, communication and the flow of students from West Africa to Britain, weakening the Union's base.
3. Internal disunity and leadership wrangling. Rivalry, personality clashes and disagreements among members and leaders sapped the organisation's strength.
4. Distance from home. Being based in London, far from West Africa, WASU became detached from the masses at home and could not sustain a strong local following.
5. Colonial government hostility. The colonial authorities regarded WASU as subversive and worked to discourage and undermine it.
6. Transient membership. As a students' body its members graduated and left, so it constantly lost experienced leaders and lacked continuity.
7. Emergence of home-based parties. The rise of nationalist parties within West Africa drew attention and support away from the London-based Union.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Functions of the Emir in the Hausa/Fulani traditional political system

1. Head of the administration. The Emir was the political and administrative head of the emirate, presiding over the government and his council of officials.
2. Chief law-maker and enforcer. He made laws within the framework of Islamic law and ensured their enforcement to maintain peace and order.
3. Chief judge. He was the highest judicial authority, hearing appeals and important cases, assisted by the Alkali who administered Sharia law.
4. Religious head. As leader of the Muslim community he upheld and defended Islam and the Sharia within his emirate.
5. Collection of taxes. He supervised the assessment and collection of taxes such as the jangali (cattle tax) and zakkat through his officials.
6. Defence and command of forces. He was responsible for the defence of the emirate and could raise forces in time of war.
7. Appointment of officials. He appointed and could dismiss the district and village heads and other office holders who assisted him.
8. Custodian of custom and welfare. He upheld the customs and traditions of the people and provided for their general welfare.