WAEC SSCE - Government - 1999

Akọwa Nkọwa

In a parliamentary system of government, the Chief Executive is known as the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is responsible for running the day-to-day affairs of the government. The Prime Minister is usually appointed by the head of state, who is often a ceremonial figurehead, and must be a member of the parliament. The Prime Minister is also accountable to the parliament and can be removed from office through a vote of no confidence by the members of parliament.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A foreigner can become a citizen of another state through a legal process called "naturalization." This process involves an application to the country's government, meeting certain eligibility criteria, such as having a permanent residency status, passing a citizenship test, and renouncing the citizenship of the previous country of origin (in some cases). Once the requirements are met and the application is approved, the individual is granted citizenship of the country, with all the rights and responsibilities that come with it, such as the right to vote, hold public office, and access public services.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A feature of democratic government is that it is representative and accountable. This means that in a democratic government, the people elect their representatives through free and fair elections. The elected representatives are then accountable to the people and are expected to represent their interests and needs. Democratic government also upholds the rule of law, protects individual rights and freedoms, encourages open and honest debate, and promotes transparency and accountability in government actions. Overall, a democratic government is based on the principle of popular sovereignty, which means that power lies with the people and the government is created to serve their interests.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Elections are held to ensure a peaceful change of government in a democratic system. It provides the citizens with the opportunity to choose their leaders through a free and fair voting process. The goal is to allow the people to have a say in who represents them in government and to hold those representatives accountable for their actions. Elections also help to promote political stability and legitimacy by ensuring that leaders have the mandate of the people they govern. Therefore, the main purpose of elections is to provide citizens with a voice in their government and to ensure a smooth transition of power.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Local government laws are known as "bye-laws." Bye-laws are a set of laws and regulations made by a local authority, such as a city council or a town board, to govern the local area. These laws are specific to the local area and address issues such as public health, sanitation, noise pollution, and land use. Bye-laws are typically made in accordance with the provisions of an Act of Parliament or other higher legal authority, and they are enforced by local government officials.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The policy making body in the organizational structure of a mass political party is the National Executive Committee (NEC). The NEC is responsible for making policy decisions and overseeing the overall direction of the party. It is usually composed of top-ranking officials and representatives from different regions or factions within the party. The Secretary General of the party, National Chairman, and other key officials may be members of the NEC, but they do not have the same policy-making authority as the committee as a whole. The Parliamentary Committee of the party, on the other hand, is responsible for managing the party's affairs in Parliament, rather than setting policy for the party as a whole.

Akọwa Nkọwa

According to Marxism, those who own and control productive resources in a capitalist state are "exploiters". This is because Marx believed that in a capitalist system, the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) owned and controlled the means of production (such as factories and machines) while the working class (the proletariat) only owned their labor. The bourgeoisie, therefore, were able to exploit the labor of the working class to generate profits for themselves, resulting in an unequal distribution of wealth and power.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

Public opinion refers to the views, beliefs, and attitudes of the general public regarding a particular issue or topic. In a democratic system, the government is accountable to the people it governs. By taking into account public opinion, the government can find out what the people think about its activities, policies, and decisions. This enables the government to gauge the level of support or opposition to its actions and to make decisions that are more in line with the wishes of the people. Additionally, public opinion can help the government to identify emerging issues and concerns that need to be addressed, and to communicate its policies and decisions to the public more effectively. Therefore, the answer is that public opinion enables the government to find out what the people think about its activities.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

A federal constitution is usually written and rigid. A federal system of government is characterized by a division of power between the central government and the constituent units. The constitution of a federal state, therefore, spells out the powers and functions of the central and constituent units of the government. A written constitution is required in order to ensure that the powers and functions of the various arms of government are well defined and well understood. A rigid constitution is also necessary to prevent arbitrary changes to the constitution that could undermine the balance of power between the central government and the constituent units.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

To implement Indirect Rule in Eastern Nigeria, the British appointed warrant chiefs. Indirect Rule was a system of colonial administration used by the British in some of their colonies, where they allowed local traditional rulers or elites to maintain some of their authority and use them as intermediaries between the colonial government and the people. In Eastern Nigeria, the British appointed warrant chiefs to serve as intermediaries between the colonial government and the local people. Warrant chiefs were chosen by the British and were given the authority to collect taxes and carry out other administrative duties. However, the system was later abolished due to the widespread abuse of power by the warrant chiefs.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The basic feature of the rule of law is "Equality before the law." This means that all individuals, regardless of their status, wealth, or power, are subject to the same laws and legal procedures. No one is above the law, and everyone should be treated equally and fairly under the law. This ensures that there is no discrimination or favoritism in the legal system, and it promotes justice and fairness in society. The other options mentioned in the question, such as secret trials of offenders, executive control of the judiciary, and unlimited powers for the police, are not basic features of the rule of law, and may even be seen as violations of the rule of law.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

A multi-member constituency is one in which two or more representatives are elected from one constituency. This means that voters in a particular area are represented by more than one person in the legislative body. This system is often used in countries with proportional representation, where political parties are awarded seats based on the proportion of votes they receive. Multi-member constituencies help to ensure that the views of a wider range of constituents are represented in the legislative body.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Judicial review refers to the process by which the courts review the actions or decisions of the government, particularly the executive and legislative branches, to determine their constitutionality. It is a key aspect of the system of checks and balances in a democracy, allowing the judiciary to ensure that the government is operating within the limits of the law and the constitution. Judicial review can also settle disputes between citizens and the government or between different levels of government.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The colonial Government whose constitution introduced elective principle into the Nigerian politics was Hugh Clifford. Hugh Clifford was a British colonial administrator who served as the Governor of Nigeria from 1920 to 1931. During his tenure, he introduced the Clifford Constitution of 1922, which allowed for limited elective representation in the legislative council. This marked the first time Nigerians were allowed to participate in their own governance, although the electorate was limited to only a small percentage of the population.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The traditional political rule in pre-colonial British West Africa was characterized by rule by consent. In this system, power was exercised by traditional rulers who were chosen by the people and who ruled with the consent of the governed. This was a form of participatory democracy where the people had a say in who governed them and how they were governed. The traditional rulers were seen as custodians of the people's culture and traditions, and their role was to ensure that the customs and values of the people were preserved. The system was not perfect, but it was a reflection of the people's desire for self-determination and the preservation of their way of life.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The highest stage of socialism is communism. This is a political and economic ideology that seeks to establish a classless and stateless society, in which the means of production are owned and controlled collectively by the workers or the community as a whole. In such a society, all members have equal access to resources and the distribution of goods and services is based on the principle of "from each according to their ability, to each according to their needs." The concept of communism was popularized by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in their Communist Manifesto, and it has been implemented in various forms in countries such as the Soviet Union, China, and Cuba.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The West African who became the Secretary General of the Commonwealth is Chief Emeka Anyaoku. He served as the Secretary General of the Commonwealth from 1990 to 2000, and is a Nigerian diplomat and statesman who has made significant contributions to the promotion of democracy, human rights, and sustainable development in Africa and beyond. He was the first and only person from West Africa to hold this position in the Commonwealth, which is an intergovernmental organization made up of 54 member countries that share historical ties, values, and principles of governance.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Free and fair election can exist where there is secret balloting. Secret balloting ensures that voters are free to choose their preferred candidates without fear of intimidation or coercion. It also prevents the possibility of vote-buying, vote-selling, and vote-rigging, as each voter's choice is kept confidential. Double voting, referendum, and plebiscite do not necessarily guarantee free and fair elections as they can be subject to manipulation and abuse.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The life of a legislature comes to an end during dissolution. Dissolution is the formal ending of a parliamentary session or the parliament itself before a general election, which marks the end of the current parliament's life. During dissolution, all current MPs cease to be MPs, and the country is left without an active legislative body until a new one is elected. Therefore, dissolution is a critical moment in the life of a legislature, as it marks the end of one term and the beginning of another.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The most powerful organ of the United Nations is the Security Council. The Security Council is responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. It has the power to authorize military action and impose sanctions on countries that threaten peace. The Security Council is made up of 15 members, five of whom are permanent (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and ten of whom are elected for two-year terms. The decisions made by the Security Council are binding on all member states of the United Nations.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The rule of the privileged nobility is referred to as "aristocracy". Aristocracy is a form of government in which power is held by the nobility, who typically inherit their positions and are typically associated with wealth and hereditary status. In an aristocracy, political power and social status are generally restricted to a small, privileged class of people.

Akọwa Nkọwa

During the first republic (1960-1966), the implementation of Nigerian foreign policy was primarily pro-Western. The Nigerian government under Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa aligned itself with the Western powers, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom, in their Cold War struggle against the Soviet Union and its allies. Nigeria also supported the decolonization efforts of other African countries and played a leading role in the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963. However, Nigeria's pro-Western stance was not exclusive, as the country also maintained relations with other countries in Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The entrenchment in a constitution refers to the inclusion of provisions that are difficult to amend or remove. Fundamental human rights are usually expected to be entrenched in a constitution. These rights are considered to be inherent to human beings and should not be violated by the government or any other individual or institution. Entrenching these rights in a constitution provides a legal framework for their protection and ensures that they are not easily changed or taken away by those in power. Examples of fundamental human rights include freedom of expression, freedom of religion, the right to life, and the right to a fair trial.

Akọwa Nkọwa

An election held to resolve important political questions facing a country is called a "referendum." A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is invited to either accept or reject a particular proposal or question. The purpose of a referendum is to give citizens the opportunity to have their say on important issues affecting their country, such as changes to the constitution, major policy decisions, or changes to the status quo. In this way, a referendum is a key element of a democratic system, allowing citizens to exercise their right to vote and participate in the decision-making process of their country.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The best definition for government as an institution of the state is that it is a body that legislates, executes, and interprets laws for the state. The government is responsible for making laws and regulations for the country, enforcing them, and interpreting them. The government provides the framework for the functioning of the state and ensures the welfare of its citizens. It also maintains law and order, provides essential services, and defends the country against external threats. The government consists of various branches such as the executive, legislative, and judiciary, which work together to uphold the rule of law and serve the people.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The end of each session of the legislature is called prorogation. Prorogation is the formal end of a parliamentary session, after which all unfinished business is terminated. This marks the end of the legislative year and typically involves a speech from the monarch or head of state outlining the government's plans for the coming year. It is different from dissolution, which is the formal end of a parliament, and suspension, which is a temporary pause in the proceedings.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The major function of an electoral commission is to make arrangements for the conduct of elections. The electoral commission is responsible for organizing, supervising, and conducting free and fair elections in a country. This includes voter registration, voter education, nomination of candidates, polling, counting of votes, and announcement of results. The electoral commission ensures that elections are conducted in a transparent and impartial manner and that the will of the people is reflected in the outcome of the election. The commission also has the responsibility of resolving any disputes that may arise during the election process.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The organ of the United Nations responsible for negotiating agreements with the specialized agencies is the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). ECOSOC is one of the six main organs of the United Nations and is responsible for promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. It coordinates the work of the United Nations' specialized agencies and is authorized to negotiate agreements with them to ensure their activities are in line with the overall goals and policies of the United Nations. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is Economic and Social Council.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A one-party system of government refers to a political system in which only one political party is allowed to hold power and govern the country. This system can lead to autocracy, which is a form of government where an individual or a small group of people hold absolute power, often suppressing the rights and freedoms of citizens. In a one-party system, there is little to no opposition, which can lead to corruption and abuse of power. Without a robust system of checks and balances, the ruling party can become an oligarchy, where a small group of people hold power and control over resources, policies, and decision-making, while the majority of the people are excluded. Thus, a one-party system of government can lead to a lack of political pluralism, limited political participation, and stifle freedom of speech and expression.

Akọwa Nkọwa

According to Marxism, those who own and control productive resources in a capitalist state are the "exploiters." In Marxist theory, capitalism is based on the exploitation of the working class by the capitalist class, who own the means of production and profit from the surplus value generated by the labor of the workers. The managers may be part of the capitalist class, but they are not necessarily the owners of the productive resources, and they may also be workers themselves. The unionists are representatives of the workers and work towards protecting the rights and interests of the workers.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The passing of a vote-of-no-confidence is a method of removing the Executive in a parliamentary system of government. In a parliamentary system of government, the executive (prime minister and cabinet) is drawn from the legislature (parliament) and is accountable to it. A vote-of-no-confidence is a parliamentary procedure that allows the legislature to remove the executive by passing a motion stating that it no longer has confidence in the executive. If the motion is passed, the executive must resign or call for new elections. This procedure is not applicable to other forms of government, such as military, presidential or confederal systems.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Under a parliamentary system of government, the removal of the Prime Minister can have a significant political effect. It usually leads to the resignation of the entire Cabinet or the appointment of a new Prime Minister. In some cases, it can also lead to a vote of no confidence and a general election, where citizens have the opportunity to choose a new government. Therefore, the political effect of the removal of the Prime Minister is usually a change in government leadership, either through a resignation or a general election. It does not typically result in the suspension of the constitution or the dissolution of the court of law.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Universal Adult Suffrage is an indispensable factor in the practice of democracy. Universal Adult Suffrage is a principle that grants all adult citizens the right to vote without discrimination. This means that everyone has an equal opportunity to vote for the candidate of their choice, regardless of their social status, wealth, education, or any other characteristic. In a democratic society, where the ultimate power resides with the people, universal suffrage ensures that the government is elected by the people and accountable to them. Therefore, democracy cannot exist without universal suffrage, as it is a fundamental aspect of the democratic process.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The rights to freedom of speech means that people are free to express their opinion within the limits of the law. This means that individuals have the right to express their views, ideas, or criticisms about the government or any other topic they choose, as long as they do not infringe on the rights of others or break any laws. Freedom of speech is a fundamental human right that is essential to the functioning of a democratic society, allowing individuals to participate in government, engage in public debate, and hold those in power accountable.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The first president of the Nigerian republic was Nnamdi Azikiwe. Nnamdi Azikiwe was a prominent Nigerian nationalist, statesman and the first president of Nigeria after it became a republic in 1963. He was a key figure in Nigeria's struggle for independence from Britain, and he played an important role in the country's political development both before and after independence. Azikiwe was also a prolific writer, and his books and speeches on African nationalism and the struggle for independence were widely read and influential.

Akọwa Nkọwa

According to Marxism, those who own and control productive resources in a capitalist state are the "exploiters". In Marxist theory, capitalism is a system in which the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production) exploit the proletariat (the working class) for their labor, and appropriate the surplus value created by the workers. The managers, unionists, and workers are considered part of the proletariat, as they do not own the means of production, and are therefore not in control of the wealth created by their labor.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Treasury controls government expenditure. It is responsible for managing the government's finances, including collecting revenues and making payments. The Treasury prepares the budget, which outlines the government's planned spending for the year, and monitors government spending to ensure that it stays within budget. The Treasury also works with other government departments to ensure that they are spending their allocated funds appropriately.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The system of government recommended by the 1979 Constitution of Nigeria was the presidential system. In this system, the President serves as both the Head of State and the Head of Government, with separate branches of government for the executive, legislative, and judicial arms of government. The President is directly elected by the people and has significant powers and responsibilities, including the ability to appoint and dismiss ministers, propose and veto legislation, and act as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

Akọwa Nkọwa

One of the advantages of delegated legislation is that it lessens the work of parliament. Delegated legislation is the power given to another body to make laws on behalf of the parliament. It reduces the workload of parliament by allowing them to focus on important matters while the delegated body handles the minor details. This system also allows for faster and more efficient decision-making processes, which can be especially useful in emergency situations. However, it is important to note that delegated legislation should be monitored closely to ensure that it remains within the bounds of the original legislation and does not exceed its authority.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The essence of a constitution is to safeguard the rights and freedoms of citizens. It is a fundamental document that outlines the rules and principles governing a country or organization. The constitution ensures that those in power do not violate the rights of the people and provides a framework for the organization and operation of the government. The constitution also establishes the rights and obligations of citizens, outlines the limits of governmental power, and serves as a protection for the minority groups against the majority. In summary, the constitution serves as a social contract between the government and the people, ensuring a fair and just society for all.

Akọwa Nkọwa

In a democracy, political sovereignty resides with the electorate, which refers to the citizens who are eligible to vote and participate in the political process. This means that the power to make decisions about the direction and policies of the government rests with the people who elect their representatives. The legislature and president are part of the government and have specific roles in the decision-making process, but ultimately they are accountable to the electorate who hold the power to choose or remove them from office. The judiciary is an independent branch of government responsible for interpreting and applying the laws, but it does not hold political sovereignty.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The best way to keep military out of politics in developing countries is to ensure good governance. When a country has stable political institutions, a functional democratic system, and an independent judiciary, it becomes difficult for the military to interfere in politics. The military usually intervenes in politics when they feel that the civilian government has failed to provide security, basic needs and social amenities, and is perceived to be corrupt. By ensuring good governance, the civilian government can address the root causes of military intervention, reduce the likelihood of a coup, and prevent the military from being involved in politics. This includes ensuring the rule of law, protecting human rights, promoting economic growth, and providing social services to the citizens.

Akọwa Nkọwa

In a democracy, the Legislature can exert appreciable control on the activities of the Executive. The Legislature, also known as the law-making body, is responsible for enacting laws and overseeing the actions of the Executive. Through its legislative oversight function, the Legislature can scrutinize the activities of the Executive, investigate cases of maladministration or corruption, and make recommendations for improvements. The Legislature can also hold the Executive accountable for its actions by passing votes of no confidence, initiating impeachment proceedings or blocking Executive proposals. The Military, Traditional Rulers and Police do not have the constitutional mandate to control the activities of the Executive in a democracy.

Akọwa Nkọwa

According to Marxism, those who own and control productive resources in a capitalist state are exploiters. In a capitalist system, the means of production (such as factories, land, and machinery) are owned by the capitalist class, also known as the bourgeoisie. They use these resources to produce goods and services and to generate profits, which they keep for themselves. The working class, or proletariat, on the other hand, sells their labor to the capitalist class in exchange for wages. Marx argued that the bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat by paying them less than the value of their labor, thereby extracting surplus value and accumulating wealth.

Akọwa Nkọwa

One of the important functions of political parties is educating the electorate through rallies and campaigns. Political parties aim to gain the support of the people and win elections. To achieve this, they organize rallies and campaigns where they explain their ideologies and policies. Through these activities, political parties educate the electorate on the issues that affect them and the country. They also provide a platform for citizens to express their opinions and concerns. This way, political parties help to create an informed and engaged electorate, which is essential for a functioning democracy.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Political authority refers to the legitimate right and power to exercise control over the behavior of individuals, groups, and institutions within a society or state. This authority is derived from the consent of the governed, who acknowledge and accept the right of those in power to make decisions on their behalf. Political authority includes the power to make and enforce laws, regulate the economy, conduct foreign policy, and maintain social order. It is a crucial element in the functioning of any political system, and is often embodied in the form of government institutions such as legislatures, executives, and courts.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The English language links the Commonwealth countries together. The Commonwealth is an organization of 54 member states, most of which were formerly under British colonial rule. English is the official language of the Commonwealth and is widely spoken across its member states. It is used for official communication, business, education, and other purposes. As a result, the English language plays an important role in linking the diverse Commonwealth countries and facilitating their interactions and cooperation.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The greatest achievement of nationalist movements in West Africa was the attainment of independence by member states. This means that after a long period of colonial rule by European powers, the people of West Africa were able to gain control of their own governments and determine their own destinies. This was a significant accomplishment for the people of the region, as it allowed them to establish their own political, economic, and social systems, and to take their place as independent nations on the world stage.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Delegated legislation refers to the laws, rules, regulations, orders and bye-laws made by persons or bodies (such as ministers, local councils and public corporations) other than the legislature itself, under powers expressly granted to them by an Act of the legislature. It is necessary in modern governments for the following reasons:

1. Pressure of work on the legislature: The legislature is burdened with an enormous volume of business and has limited time. Delegating the making of detailed rules relieves it so that it can concentrate on major policy and principal legislation.
2. Need for technical and expert knowledge: Many subjects (such as public health, taxation, aviation and finance) are highly technical. Experts in the relevant ministries and agencies are better placed than lay legislators to work out the detailed rules.
3. Flexibility and ease of amendment: Delegated legislation can be made, amended or revoked quickly and easily without going through the long parliamentary process, allowing the law to be adjusted promptly to changing circumstances.
4. To deal with emergencies: In times of war, disaster or sudden crisis, quick action is needed. The legislature cannot always meet in time, so delegated powers enable the executive to make prompt rules to meet the situation.
5. To handle unforeseen situations and details: It is impossible for the legislature to foresee and provide for every detail and future contingency in the main Act, so it lays down the broad framework and leaves the details to be filled in by subsidiary legislation.
6. To meet local needs: Local authorities are allowed to make bye-laws suited to the peculiar needs and conditions of their own areas, which the central legislature cannot conveniently do.
7. It saves time and cost: Passing every minor rule through the full legislative process would be slow and expensive; delegation is more economical.

Akọwa Nkọwa

In pre-colonial West Africa, traditional rulers exercised firm control over their subjects through a blend of political, religious, judicial and social instruments. The following were the main methods of control.

1. Religious and spiritual authority: Most rulers were regarded as sacred, divine or semi-divine persons who served as the link between the living and the ancestors or gods. This spiritual aura made subjects obedient out of reverence and fear of supernatural sanction.
2. Use of a council of chiefs and elders: The ruler governed with a council that represented the various lineages and quarters. Through these representatives the ruler transmitted decisions to, and secured the compliance of, the people.
3. Control of the judicial system: The ruler was the highest judge and settled disputes, punished offenders and enforced customary law. His power to fine, banish or execute wrongdoers kept subjects in check.
4. Command of the army and security forces: Rulers maintained warriors and palace guards who suppressed revolts, defended the community and enforced the ruler's orders by force where necessary.
5. Control of land and economic resources: As custodian of communal land, the ruler allocated farmland, levied taxes and tributes, and collected tolls. Economic dependence on the ruler ensured loyalty.
6. Age grades, secret societies and title systems: These institutions carried out the ruler's directives, mobilised labour, and disciplined members, thereby extending royal control to the grassroots.
7. Reward and patronage: Rulers granted titles, chieftaincy, wives, land and other favours to loyal subjects, buying support and discouraging opposition.
8. Enforcement of customs, taboos and traditions: Breaches of taboo attracted heavy sanctions, so respect for tradition became an effective instrument of social control.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Using Nigeria as the chosen West African country, the following were the main reasons for military intervention in politics, notably the coup of January 1966 and subsequent takeovers.

1. Political corruption: Widespread embezzlement and misuse of public funds by politicians provoked the military to intervene in order to sanitise governance.
2. Electoral malpractice: Rigging, thuggery and violence, especially during the 1964 federal and 1965 Western Region elections, undermined confidence in the political process.
3. Ethnicity and tribalism: Politics was dominated by ethnic rivalry and favouritism, which threatened national unity.
4. Political instability and breakdown of law and order: Violence in the Western Region ("Operation Wetie") and general disorder gave the army a pretext to step in.
5. Weak and ineffective leadership: The inability of civilian governments to manage crises and maintain discipline eroded public trust.
6. Personal ambition of soldiers: Some officers were driven by the desire for power, wealth and rapid promotion.
7. Nepotism and abuse of office: Awarding of contracts and appointments on ethnic and personal grounds bred discontent.
8. Economic mismanagement: Poor handling of the economy, inflation and neglect of public welfare fuelled dissatisfaction.
9. Foreign influence and the example of coups elsewhere: The wave of military takeovers across Africa encouraged imitation.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Taking Nigeria as the chosen West African country, four objectives of its foreign policy are outlined below.

1. Promotion and protection of national interest: Nigeria's foreign policy seeks to safeguard the security, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country and the welfare of its citizens abroad.
2. Africa as the centrepiece of foreign policy: Nigeria places the liberation, unity and development of Africa at the heart of its external relations, supporting the decolonisation and economic advancement of the continent.
3. Promotion of world peace and international cooperation: Nigeria works through the United Nations, the African Union and ECOWAS to maintain peace, settle disputes peacefully, and foster friendly relations among states.
4. Promotion of economic and technical cooperation: It aims to attract foreign investment, expand trade and secure technical assistance for national development.

Other objectives include the pursuit of non-alignment, respect for the sovereign equality of states, and the promotion of regional integration through ECOWAS.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Although the fundamental rights of the individual are guaranteed by the constitution, they are not absolute. They may be lawfully restricted, curtailed or suspended under the following circumstances:

1. In the interest of public safety, order and morality: Rights such as freedom of assembly and movement may be restricted to prevent riots, disorder, or acts offensive to public decency and morality.
2. During a state of emergency, war or public danger: When the state faces war, invasion, natural disaster or grave internal crisis, certain rights may be suspended to enable the government maintain order and protect the nation.
3. In the interest of national security and defence: Rights may be limited where their exercise would endanger the security, sovereignty or territorial integrity of the state, for instance restrictions on the disclosure of official secrets.
4. To protect public health: Individual liberty and movement may be curtailed to check the outbreak or spread of epidemics and diseases, for example quarantine and isolation measures.
5. To protect the rights and freedoms of other persons: One person's rights end where another's begin, so freedom of speech, for instance, is limited by laws against defamation, sedition and incitement.
6. When a person breaks the law or is convicted by a court: A person's right to personal liberty is lawfully restricted when he is arrested, detained or imprisoned following a lawful trial and conviction.
7. Persons of unsound mind, minors and addicts: The rights of lunatics, infants and drug addicts may be restricted for their own good and for the protection of society.
8. In the interest of town planning and public utility: The right to property may be limited through lawful acquisition of land for public purposes, with compensation.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A free and fair election is one conducted openly, honestly and impartially, in which every qualified citizen can vote freely and the result truly reflects the wishes of the electorate. The following conditions are necessary for it:

1. An independent and impartial electoral body: There must be a neutral, well-funded and adequately staffed electoral commission that organises and conducts the election without bias towards any party or candidate.
2. Universal adult suffrage and an accurate voters' register: All qualified adults must be free to register and vote, and there must be a credible, up to date voters' register free of padding and multiple registration.
3. Existence of more than one political party: There should be genuine opposition and a range of candidates so that the electorate has a real choice.
4. Freedom of speech, the press and association: Candidates and parties must be free to campaign, hold rallies and canvass for votes, and the electorate must be free to receive information and express their views.
5. Secret ballot: Voting must be by secret ballot so that voters can express their true choice without fear of intimidation or victimisation.
6. Adequate security and a peaceful atmosphere: There must be enough impartial security personnel to maintain order and protect voters, materials and officials, free of thuggery and violence.
7. An enlightened electorate: Voters should be educated enough to understand the issues and the voting procedure and to resist bribery and manipulation.
8. Impartial security agencies and rule of law: The police and other agencies must be neutral, and electoral laws must be firmly and fairly enforced.
9. An independent judiciary and provision for electoral petitions: There must be impartial courts or tribunals to settle election disputes fairly and promptly.
10. Sufficient and well distributed electoral materials: Ballot papers, boxes and other materials must be adequate, secure and delivered to all polling units on time.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Independence Constitutions of the British West African countries (Nigeria 1960, Ghana 1957, Sierra Leone 1961, The Gambia 1965) shared broadly similar features because they were fashioned on the British parliamentary model. Their main features were as follows.

1. Parliamentary system of government: They established a cabinet system in which the Prime Minister and ministers were drawn from and responsible to Parliament.
2. A ceremonial Head of State: The Queen, represented by a Governor-General, was the constitutional Head of State, while executive power rested with the Prime Minister.
3. Federal or unitary structure: Where appropriate (as in Nigeria) a federal arrangement with regional governments was created; others adopted a unitary structure.
4. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution was the highest law of the land and all authorities derived their powers from it.
5. Fundamental human rights: The rights of citizens were entrenched and made justiciable in the courts.
6. Separation of powers: Legislative, executive and judicial powers were vested in distinct organs with checks and balances.
7. An independent judiciary: Courts were made independent, with judges enjoying security of tenure.
8. Bicameral or unicameral legislature: Elected legislatures (in Nigeria, a Senate and House of Representatives) were established to make laws.
9. Amendment procedure: Special rigid procedures were laid down for altering the constitution.
10. Citizenship provisions: The constitution defined who was a citizen of the new independent state.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Definition of democracy

Democracy, in the famous words of Abraham Lincoln, is government of the people, by the people and for the people. It is a system of government in which the ultimate political power belongs to the people, who exercise it either directly or, more commonly, through freely elected representatives. It is founded on popular sovereignty, majority rule with respect for minority rights, political equality, the rule of law and the protection of fundamental human rights. Government under democracy is based on the consent of the governed and is accountable to them.

(b) Conditions necessary for the successful operation of democracy

1. Free, fair and periodic elections: There must be regular, honest elections conducted by an independent electoral body, based on universal adult suffrage, so that the people can freely choose and change their leaders.
2. An enlightened and literate electorate: Citizens must be educated and politically conscious to understand issues, make informed choices and hold leaders accountable.
3. Existence of more than one political party: Freedom to form parties and a genuine opposition give the electorate a real choice and check the government.
4. Respect for fundamental human rights: Freedom of speech, the press, association and assembly must be guaranteed so that people can express themselves and criticise the government.
5. Rule of law and an independent judiciary: The law must be supreme, all must be equal before it, and impartial courts must protect rights and settle disputes.
6. Separation of powers and checks and balances: The organs of government must be separate to prevent abuse and concentration of power.
7. A free press and independent media: The media must be free to inform, educate and act as a watchdog on government.
8. A sound economy and reasonable standard of living: Poverty and hunger breed instability, so a viable economy supports democratic stability.
9. Political tolerance and a spirit of compromise: Leaders and citizens must accept differences of opinion, respect the will of the majority and honour election results.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The legislature is the organ of government responsible primarily for making laws. In a modern state it performs the following functions:

1. Law making: This is its principal function. The legislature deliberates on, amends and enacts new laws, and repeals or amends existing ones, to guide the conduct of citizens and the affairs of the state.
2. Control of public finance: It approves the annual budget, authorises taxation and government expenditure, and no money may be raised or spent by the executive without its approval, giving it control over the purse.
3. Oversight and control of the executive: It checks and supervises the executive by questioning ministers, debating government policies, and in a parliamentary system by passing a vote of no confidence.
4. Investigative function: Through its committees, the legislature conducts investigations and public hearings into matters of public interest and into the activities of government departments and agencies.
5. Amendment of the constitution: The legislature has the power to amend or alter the constitution following the laid down procedure.
6. Confirmation and approval of appointments: It confirms or ratifies key appointments made by the executive, such as ministers, judges, ambassadors and heads of agencies.
7. Ratification of treaties: It ratifies international treaties, agreements and declarations of war entered into by the executive.
8. Representative function: Members represent their constituencies, articulate the wishes, grievances and interests of the people, and serve as a link between the electorate and the government.
9. Judicial functions: In some cases it exercises quasi-judicial powers, such as impeaching the President or other high officials and punishing for contempt.
10. Electoral function: In some systems it may participate in electing certain officials, for instance choosing a President where no candidate wins an outright majority.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The nationalists criticised the Indirect Rule system introduced by the British for the following reasons.

1. It excluded the educated elite: Western-educated Africans were sidelined in favour of traditional rulers, denying them a role in governance.
2. It was undemocratic: Chiefs were used as agents of the colonial power rather than as accountable representatives of the people.
3. It made chiefs dictatorial: Backed by British authority, many chiefs became autocratic, overbearing and corrupt, abusing their subjects.
4. It was imposed on areas without chiefs: In societies such as the Igbo and other segmentary communities that had no centralised chiefs, artificial "warrant chiefs" were created, which the people rejected.
5. It retarded political development: By preserving traditional structures, it slowed the growth of modern democratic and representative institutions.
6. It divided the people: It emphasised ethnic and regional differences, hindering national unity.
7. It was a tool of exploitation: Chiefs were used to collect taxes and enforce unpopular colonial policies, making the system oppressive.
8. It denied genuine self-government: Real authority remained with British officials, so it was seen as a device to perpetuate colonial rule.

Akọwa Nkọwa

None

Akọwa Nkọwa

Before the Second World War the Legislative Councils in British West Africa were tightly controlled by the colonial authorities so as to keep real power in British hands. The council was controlled in the following ways.

1. Domination by official members: The council had a majority of official (nominated colonial officers) members who were bound to vote as the Governor directed, guaranteeing government control of all decisions.
2. Nomination of unofficial members: Most of the African "unofficial" members were nominated by the Governor rather than elected, so they owed their seats to him and rarely opposed him.
3. Governor as President: The Governor presided over the council, set its agenda and controlled its proceedings.
4. The Governor's power of veto: He could reject any bill or motion passed by the council.
5. Reserve and certification powers: The Governor could enact measures the council rejected, and reserve certain bills for the approval of the British Crown.
6. Limited franchise: Only a tiny number of Africans in a few coastal towns could elect members, so the council was unrepresentative and easily controlled.
7. Restricted legislative competence: The council could only legislate on limited matters and had little control over finance, which remained with the Governor.
8. Control from London: The Secretary of State for the Colonies gave directives that the Governor enforced through the council.