WAEC SSCE - Economics - 1993

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The correct way to calculate total cost is to add the fixed cost and variable cost together. Fixed costs are expenses that do not change with the amount of output, such as rent or salaries, while variable costs are expenses that increase or decrease as the amount of output changes, such as raw materials or labor. Adding the fixed cost to the variable cost gives the total cost of producing a certain amount of output. This is because fixed costs are already incurred and do not change based on the level of output, while variable costs increase or decrease as the level of output changes. Therefore, the correct option is the one that suggests "Addition of fixed cost to variable cost."

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The compulsory cost that a firm has to incur whether it is producing goods or not is referred to as its "fixed cost." Fixed costs are expenses that do not change with the level of production output, such as rent for a factory, salaries for employees, or property taxes. For instance, even if a factory does not produce any goods, it still needs to pay its rent, utilities bills, and other fixed costs. Similarly, if the factory is producing goods, it still needs to pay these fixed costs on a regular basis, regardless of the level of output. In contrast, variable costs change with the level of production output. Raw materials, labor costs, and electricity bills are examples of variable costs. As the level of output increases, variable costs also increase, and vice versa. Therefore, the answer to the question is "fixed cost."

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If the price falls below the equilibrium, then the quantity demanded by buyers will increase because they will see the lower price as a better deal. At the same time, the quantity supplied by sellers will decrease because they will not be as motivated to produce or sell at the lower price. This creates a situation where there is excess demand, meaning that buyers want to buy more than there is available for sale. As a result, the answer is that demand will be greater than supply. This excess demand puts upward pressure on prices as buyers are willing to pay more to secure the limited supply. Eventually, the price will increase to the equilibrium level where demand equals supply again, restoring balance to the market.

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Sales of shares is not a source of finance for a one-man business. A one-man business is a type of business owned and operated by a single individual. One-man businesses typically have limited access to sources of finance compared to larger businesses. Some sources of finance that a one-man business might consider include money lenders, inheritance, loans from insurance companies, and loans from banks. However, sales of shares is not a viable source of finance for a one-man business, as there are no shareholders to sell shares to. Sales of shares refer to the process of selling ownership in a business to outside investors in exchange for capital. This is a common source of finance for larger businesses, such as corporations, where there are multiple shareholders who own and invest in the business. Therefore, while a one-man business may be able to access various sources of finance, sales of shares are not applicable in this context, as there is only one owner of the business.

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An economic system in which the state owns and controls the means of production is known as a socialist economy. In a socialist economy, the government or state owns and controls major industries such as healthcare, education, transportation, and energy. The goal of a socialist economy is to provide equal access to goods and services for all citizens, regardless of their income or social status. The state also controls the distribution of wealth and resources, and the production of goods and services is based on the needs of society rather than the profit motive of individuals or corporations. This means that private property is limited, and individuals cannot accumulate wealth beyond a certain limit. Therefore, a socialist economy is characterized by state ownership and control of the means of production, with the goal of achieving social equality and providing basic needs for all citizens.

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Robert T. Malthus postulated in his population theory that the population growth rate may out-grow the means of subsistence. In simpler terms, Malthus argued that if the population continued to grow unchecked, it would eventually surpass the ability of the Earth to produce enough resources (such as food, water, and land) to sustain everyone. This would lead to famine, disease, and other forms of suffering. Malthus believed that the only way to avoid this outcome was to limit population growth through measures such as celibacy, delayed marriage, and contraception.

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Land is distinguished as a factor of production because it is a free gift of nature that is not produced by human effort. It refers to all natural resources such as minerals, forests, water, and land itself. Land is limited in supply and can be owned by individuals or the government. Land as a factor of production is significant because it is essential for the production of goods and services in an economy. Without land, production of goods and services would be impossible.

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The real cost of a commodity is the alternative that has to be sacrificed or forgone in order to purchase it. This means that when you choose to buy a commodity, you are giving up the opportunity to use that money to buy something else, or to invest it in some other way. This alternative cost is what is considered the real cost of the commodity, because it represents the true value of what you are giving up in order to acquire the commodity. It is important to consider the real cost of a commodity when making purchasing decisions, in order to make the most efficient use of your resources.

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The answer is "consumer." A middleman is an intermediary in the distribution channel that connects the manufacturer or producer of a product to the end consumer. They play a vital role in getting products from the manufacturer to the end consumer by performing various activities such as storage, transportation, financing, and marketing. A wholesaler is a middleman who buys products in large quantities from the manufacturer and sells them to retailers. A distributor is a middleman who takes care of the entire distribution process, from buying products from the manufacturer to selling them to retailers. An agent is a middleman who connects the manufacturer with potential buyers and earns a commission on each sale. A retailer is a middleman who buys products from wholesalers or distributors and sells them to the end consumer. In contrast, a consumer is the end user who buys the product for personal use and is not a middleman in the distribution channel. They are the final link in the chain of distribution and directly benefit from the services provided by the middlemen in the distribution channel.

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An inferior good is a good for which the demand decreases as consumer income increases. This is because when consumers' income rises, they tend to switch to superior goods or higher quality substitutes, resulting in a decrease in demand for the inferior goods. This is the opposite of normal or superior goods, where the demand increases as income increases. Examples of inferior goods include low-quality goods like instant noodles or used clothing.

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The growth of the population is the increase in the total population of a country over a given period. This increase can be measured in different ways, such as the annual increase in population, the addition to the total population over a given period, or the percentage increase in population in a given year. Population growth occurs when the number of births in a population exceeds the number of deaths, and when there is net migration into the country. Population growth can have both positive and negative effects on a country's economy and society. On the positive side, a growing population can increase the size of the labor force and stimulate economic growth. However, if the rate of population growth is too high, it can strain a country's resources and lead to social and environmental challenges, such as overcrowding and pollution.

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A scale of preference is a list of a consumer's wants arranged in order of importance. The purpose of creating a scale of preference is to help the consumer make rational choices by ranking their preferences in a logical and consistent manner. Human beings have unlimited wants, but the resources available to satisfy those wants are limited. Therefore, consumers must make choices about which wants to satisfy and in what order. By creating a scale of preference, the consumer can identify which wants are most important and which wants can be sacrificed if necessary. For example, a person might create a scale of preference for their monthly budget, listing their most important expenses such as rent, food, and transportation at the top of the list, followed by less important expenses like entertainment or luxury items. If the person's budget is limited, they can use their scale of preference to decide which expenses to prioritize and which ones to cut back on. In summary, a scale of preference is a tool that enables consumers to make wise and rational decisions about their choices by arranging their wants in order of importance.

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A nation with a working population that is insufficient to exploit its resources is said to be under-populated. This means that the country has more natural resources available than it has people to make use of them. As a result, the nation may experience a shortage of labor, leading to a lower level of economic activity than what could be possible if there were more workers available. Under-population can also lead to a decrease in innovation and technological advancements, as there may not be enough people available to research and develop new technologies. Additionally, an under-populated nation may face challenges in maintaining social services, such as healthcare and education, as there may not be enough people to support these systems. However, it's important to note that being under-populated is not necessarily a positive or negative situation, as it depends on a variety of factors, including the country's resources, infrastructure, and economic goals.

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Price elasticity of demand is defined as the responsiveness of demand to changes in price. In other words, price elasticity of demand measures how much the quantity demanded of a good or service changes in response to a change in its price. If the quantity demanded of a good or service changes significantly in response to a change in price, then the demand is said to be elastic. On the other hand, if the quantity demanded of a good or service changes only slightly in response to a change in price, then the demand is said to be inelastic. For example, if the price of a luxury car increases by 10%, and as a result, the demand for that car decreases by 20%, then the demand is said to be elastic. This means that consumers are very responsive to changes in price, and a small change in price can have a significant impact on the quantity demanded. Therefore, price elasticity of demand is a measure of how sensitive consumers are to changes in price and is an important concept in economics for businesses and policymakers to consider when making decisions about pricing and taxation.

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The occupational distribution of population in most West African countries shows the highest concentration in agriculture and allied industries. Agriculture and allied industries are the main sources of livelihood for many people in West Africa. This includes farming, livestock rearing, fishing, and forestry. These activities are mainly carried out in rural areas and provide employment for a significant portion of the population. In West Africa, the majority of the population lives in rural areas, and agriculture is the primary economic activity in these areas. Many people engage in subsistence farming, which means they grow crops and rear livestock for their own consumption. Others engage in commercial agriculture, producing crops and livestock for sale in local markets or for export. Therefore, due to the high dependence on agriculture and allied industries in West Africa, the occupational distribution of the population shows the highest concentration in these sectors.

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One-man business is popular in West Africa because of several factors such as ease of entry, small capital required, limited entrepreneurial skills needed, and ease of decision making. However, the tendency to become joint-stock companies is not a reason why one-man businesses are popular in West Africa. This is because one-man businesses are owned and operated by a single individual, whereas joint-stock companies involve multiple owners who contribute capital and share in the profits and losses of the business. One-man businesses are attractive to entrepreneurs in West Africa because they offer an opportunity to start a business with minimal resources and limited experience. These businesses can be started with small amounts of capital and require fewer skills compared to larger enterprises. Additionally, the decision-making process is simpler and more efficient since there is only one owner making the decisions. Therefore, while one-man businesses may eventually grow into joint-stock companies, this is not a factor that explains why they are popular in West Africa.

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The situation in which an increase in demand for certain goods leads to a fall in demand for other goods is known as competitive demand. This occurs when two or more products are in direct competition with each other and are seen as substitutes by consumers. As the demand for one product increases, consumers may shift their purchases away from the competing product, causing a fall in its demand. For example, if the demand for hamburgers increases, it may lead to a fall in demand for hot dogs because they are both considered fast food options and are substitutes for each other.

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Division of labour may be restricted when the market is small. When there is a small market, the demand for goods and services produced may be low, and the number of workers required to produce them may be small. As a result, the division of labor may not be feasible or profitable for the producers. In such situations, producers may not specialize in a particular task, but instead may need to perform multiple tasks to meet their needs. This can limit the potential gains in efficiency and productivity that can be achieved through division of labor.

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The statement "Production is not complete until the goods reached the final consumer" is correct. Production involves the creation of goods or services by combining various factors of production, such as labor, capital, and raw materials. However, the ultimate goal of production is to satisfy the needs and wants of consumers. Therefore, production is not considered complete until the goods or services have reached the final consumer and have been consumed or used for their intended purpose. The production process involves various stages, including manufacturing, packaging, transportation, and distribution, all of which are geared towards getting the goods to the final consumer. So, the final stage of production is when the goods have reached the hands of the consumers and have been used or consumed.

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One of the advantages of division of labor is that it leads to specialization. When workers are assigned specific tasks based on their skills and abilities, they become experts in those tasks. This increases their productivity, efficiency, and output, and also reduces the time required to complete a task. For example, in a car manufacturing plant, different workers are assigned specific tasks, such as assembling the wheels, installing the engine, or painting the body. By focusing on a specific task, workers become skilled at performing that task quickly and efficiently, reducing the overall production time and increasing output. Specialization also allows for the development of new technologies and techniques that improve production processes. As workers become more experienced in their assigned tasks, they may discover new and more efficient ways of performing them, leading to improvements in productivity and quality. In summary, the advantage of division of labor is that it leads to specialization, which increases productivity, efficiency, and output, reduces production time, and allows for the development of new technologies and techniques.

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The location of timber and plywood industries in West Africa is mainly influenced by the presence of a luxuriant forest. This is because the primary raw material for these industries is wood, and a dense forest provides a ready source of timber for logging and processing. While other factors such as availability of transport, good climate, availability of power supply, and adequate labor supply are also important considerations, the presence of a forest is a key factor that determines the location of timber and plywood industries. In areas where forests are abundant, the cost of obtaining raw materials is reduced, which can make the production of timber and plywood more cost-effective. Additionally, the proximity of the forest to the processing plant can reduce transportation costs and increase efficiency. Therefore, the availability of a forest is crucial in determining the location of timber and plywood industries in West Africa.

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In economics, the reward for labor is usually in the form of wages. Wages refer to the payment made to workers in exchange for their time and effort spent on producing goods or services. Wages are a form of compensation that varies depending on the skill level, experience, and education of the worker, as well as the demand for their particular job in the market. For example, a highly skilled and experienced worker in a specialized field may earn a higher wage than a worker with less experience and fewer skills. Wages are usually paid on an hourly, daily, or weekly basis, and can be paid in various forms such as cash, check, or direct deposit. They are a vital component of the labor market and play an essential role in determining the supply and demand of labor. In summary, wages are the main form of reward for labor in economics. They are the payment made to workers in exchange for their time, effort, and skills used in producing goods or services, and are a crucial factor in determining the supply and demand of labor in the market.

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The lack of industries in rural areas of West Africa is primarily due to inadequate infrastructure. Roads, electricity, water supply, and other essential amenities required for setting up and running industries are often absent in rural areas. As a result, it becomes challenging for industries to operate profitably in these areas. Additionally, the low population density and the unsuitability of the rural areas for industries due to factors such as poor soil quality, unfavorable climate, etc., are also contributing factors. However, it is not correct to assume that rural people are not meant to work in industries or are uneducated, as these factors are not the primary reasons for the lack of industries in rural areas.

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The price system refers to a system of resource allocation in which prices are determined through the interaction of supply and demand in the market. In this system, prices play a crucial role in allocating resources to their most valued uses. The prices of goods and services reflect the scarcity of resources and the preferences of consumers, and they act as signals that guide producers and consumers to make decisions about what to produce, how much to produce, and how much to consume. The price system is used in most modern economies as a means of coordinating the activities of producers and consumers, and it is often seen as an efficient way of allocating resources in a market economy.

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The reason mainly responsible for the inefficient distribution of goods in West African countries is the poor transportation and communication system. Many West African countries have inadequate road, rail, and water transportation systems, which makes it difficult to transport goods from one location to another. This leads to high transportation costs, delays, and damage to goods, all of which contribute to inefficiencies in the distribution process. In addition, poor communication infrastructure makes it difficult to coordinate distribution activities, which can lead to further delays and inefficiencies. Furthermore, the poor transportation and communication systems in West Africa limit the ability of businesses to expand their market reach beyond their immediate vicinity. This creates narrow markets for commodities produced and limits the opportunities for producers to sell their goods in other regions, which can lead to a glut of goods in certain areas and scarcity in others. In summary, the inefficient distribution of goods in West African countries is mainly due to poor transportation and communication systems, which result in high transportation costs, delays, damage to goods, limited market reach, and a glut of goods in some areas and scarcity in others.

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The term production generally refers to the process of creating goods and services. It involves transforming inputs (such as raw materials, labor, and capital) into outputs (such as finished products or services). Out of the options given, the one that may not be included in explaining the term production is "use of consumer goods." This is because the use of consumer goods does not involve creating new goods or services. Instead, it involves utilizing products that have already been produced to satisfy individual needs or desires. The other options - provision of services, manufacture of goods, changing raw materials to finishing goods, and making goods available where and when they are needed - are all integral parts of the production process. Provision of services refers to the creation of intangible outputs such as consulting, education, or healthcare. Manufacturing of goods involves the physical creation of products from raw materials. Changing raw materials to finishing goods refers to the transformation of inputs into final products. Making goods available where and when they are needed involves the logistical aspect of production, ensuring that goods are distributed efficiently to meet demand.

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Land is a significant factor in terms of its contribution to the economy because it provides the vital resources needed to support various economic activities. For instance, land is used for agricultural purposes, which provides food for both local consumption and export. Also, land is a source of minerals, oil, and gas, which are essential to industrialization and energy production. Additionally, land is used for construction, providing space for residential and commercial buildings, industries, and infrastructure such as highways, railways, and airports. Thus, land is a critical factor in the economy because it provides resources that enrich economic activities and promote growth.

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A market equilibrium exists when the demand for a product or service is equal to the supply of that product or service. This means that at the given market price, the quantity of goods or services demanded by consumers is exactly equal to the quantity of goods or services supplied by producers. In other words, there is neither a shortage nor a surplus of goods or services in the market, and all buyers who want to buy at the prevailing price can do so, while all sellers who want to sell at that price can do so as well. At the market equilibrium price, buyers and sellers are satisfied with the quantity and price of the goods or services exchanged, and there is no incentive for either party to change their behavior. Therefore, the market is in a state of balance, and the price of the good or service is stable. In summary, a market equilibrium exists when the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied at a specific price, and both buyers and sellers are content with the prevailing market conditions.

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Cooperatives are not motivated mainly by profit. Cooperatives are business establishments owned and operated by a group of individuals with shared interests, such as farmers or workers. They are motivated by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance, rather than solely by profit. In a cooperative, members pool their resources and share in the profits or benefits generated by the enterprise. The ultimate goal is to benefit the members, rather than to maximize profits for outside investors or owners. While cooperatives may generate profits, these are typically reinvested in the business or distributed among the members, rather than being used solely for the benefit of owners or shareholders.

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An entrepreneur will locate his industry in a place where the cost of production will be minimized. This is because the cost of production plays a crucial role in determining the profitability of the business. By minimizing the cost of production, the entrepreneur can maximize his profits. Factors such as the availability of raw materials, access to labor, transportation costs, energy costs, and taxes all contribute to the cost of production. Therefore, the entrepreneur will seek to locate his industry in a place where these factors are favorable and the cost of production is minimized.

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Supply in economics refers to the quantity of a good or service that producers are willing and able to offer for sale at a particular price and at a particular period. It is the amount of goods and services that are available to the market at a given price and time. So, is the correct answer.

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Economics is the social science that studies how individuals, businesses, governments, and societies make choices about the allocation of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants and needs. It deals with analyzing how to make choices among alternative uses of resources in order to attain the best possible outcome, given that resources are limited. In other words, economics is concerned with making the most efficient use of limited resources in a world of unlimited wants and needs.

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Scarcity in economics arises because resources are limited in supply relative to the demand for them. This means that there are not enough resources available to satisfy all of the wants and needs of individuals and society as a whole. Human beings have unlimited wants and needs, but resources, such as land, labor, and capital, are finite. This creates a situation where people must make choices about how to allocate scarce resources among competing uses. In other words, scarcity necessitates that individuals and societies make trade-offs, as they cannot have everything they want due to the limited availability of resources. Scarcity is a fundamental concept in economics, as it drives the study of how individuals, businesses, and governments make decisions about how to allocate scarce resources in order to maximize their utility or well-being.

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Public corporations in West Africa are set up to provide essential services or products to the public that might not be adequately provided by the private sector. They are established with the aim of achieving specific economic, social, or political objectives for the benefit of the citizens. Some of these objectives include the provision of basic amenities like electricity, water, and healthcare, transportation, education, and even the exploration and exploitation of natural resources. While some public corporations may aim to make a profit, their primary goal is usually to provide a particular service or good to the public.

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The division of labor gives rise to the exchange of goods and services. Division of labor refers to the specialization of tasks and roles within a production process. This means that each worker performs a specific task or set of tasks, rather than each worker performing the entire production process. For example, in a car factory, one worker might specialize in assembling the wheels, while another worker might specialize in installing the engine. When workers specialize in specific tasks, they become more efficient at those tasks. This increases overall productivity and allows for the production of more goods and services. Additionally, the specialized workers can then exchange their goods and services with others who have specialized in different tasks. This leads to the creation of a market where goods and services are bought and sold, and trade is facilitated by the use of money or other means of exchange. Therefore, division of labor is a crucial concept in modern economies because it allows for the creation of a market where goods and services can be exchanged, leading to greater efficiency and increased production.

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Population density is the number of people living per unit area of land, \(\text{density} = \dfrac{\text{total population}}{\text{land area}}\). Where density is very high, as in parts of Nigeria, the following economic effects arise. Some are harmful and some can be beneficial.

Adverse effects

• Pressure on land: intense demand for farmland leads to fragmentation, over-cultivation and falling soil fertility.
• Unemployment and underemployment where the labour force grows faster than available jobs.
• Strain on social amenities: housing, water, electricity, schools and hospitals become overstretched, encouraging slums.
• Low per capita income if output does not keep pace with the number of people to be shared among.
• Environmental problems: congestion, pollution and poor sanitation.
• Food shortages and rising food prices when local production cannot feed the dense population.

Possible favourable effects

• Large labour supply for farms, factories and services.
• Large domestic market that encourages mass production and investment.
• Easier and cheaper provision of infrastructure per person because people are concentrated together.

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Agriculture remains vital to Nigeria yet is held back by several problems:

• Inadequate finance/credit: most farmers are poor and cannot obtain loans to expand or modernise.
• Land tenure system: customary ownership causes fragmentation and makes large-scale, mechanised farming difficult.
• Crude implements and low technology: reliance on the hoe and cutlass keeps productivity low.
• Poor storage and processing facilities: large quantities of produce are lost after harvest.
• Inadequate transport and rural infrastructure: bad roads make it costly to move produce to markets.
• Pests and diseases that destroy crops and livestock.
• Unfavourable weather: drought, erratic rainfall and flooding damage output.
• Rural-urban migration: the young and able-bodied leave the farms for the cities, causing labour shortage.
• Unstable prices and poor marketing for farm products, discouraging farmers.
• Illiteracy and inadequate extension services: many farmers lack access to modern methods and advice.

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Price elasticity of demand measures how responsive the quantity demanded of a commodity is to a change in its own price, \(E_d = \dfrac{\%\ \text{change in quantity demanded}}{\%\ \text{change in price}}\). The size of this responsiveness is determined by the following factors:

• Availability of close substitutes: the more numerous and closer the substitutes, the more elastic the demand, because buyers switch easily when price rises.
• Proportion of income spent on the good: goods that take a large share of income tend to have elastic demand; goods on which very little is spent (salt, matches) tend to be inelastic.
• Nature of the commodity: necessities such as food and medicine have inelastic demand, while luxuries have more elastic demand.
• Number of possible uses: a commodity with many alternative uses tends to have more elastic demand.
• Time period: demand is usually more elastic in the long run than in the short run, since consumers need time to adjust habits and find substitutes.
• Habit or addiction: habit-forming goods such as cigarettes have inelastic demand.
• Durability and possibility of postponement: goods whose purchase can be postponed or that can be repaired tend to have more elastic demand.
• Price level of the good: demand for very cheap items is often inelastic, while demand for costly items tends to be more elastic.

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A joint stock company is a business incorporated as a separate legal person, owned by shareholders whose ownership is divided into shares. Its main merits are:

• Limited liability: a shareholder can lose only the amount invested in shares; personal assets are protected.
• Large capital: by selling shares to many people (and, for a public company, to the general public) the firm can raise very large amounts of capital.
• Separate legal entity: the company can own property, sue and be sued in its own name, independent of its members.
• Continuity of existence (perpetual succession): the death, bankruptcy or withdrawal of a shareholder does not end the company.
• Transferability of shares: shares of a public company can be freely bought and sold, giving investors liquidity.
• Employment of experts: its large size allows it to hire specialists in management, finance and production, improving efficiency.
• Economies of scale: large-scale operation lowers average cost of production.
• Spreading of risk: business risk is shared among many shareholders rather than borne by one person.

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We use three formulae. Average Variable Cost \( AVC = \dfrac{TVC}{Q} \), Average Total Cost \( ATC = \dfrac{TC}{Q} \), and Marginal Cost \( MC = \dfrac{\Delta TC}{\Delta Q} \) (the change in total cost when output rises by one unit).

Working

AVC = TVC \( \div \) Output:

• Q = 1: \( 40 \div 1 = 40 \)
• Q = 2: \( 64 \div 2 = 32 \)
• Q = 3: \( 80 \div 3 = 26.67 \)
• Q = 4: \( 88 \div 4 = 22 \)
• Q = 5: \( 96 \div 5 = 19.2 \)

ATC = TC \( \div \) Output:

• Q = 1: \( 140 \div 1 = 140 \)
• Q = 2: \( 164 \div 2 = 82 \)
• Q = 3: \( 180 \div 3 = 60 \)
• Q = 4: \( 188 \div 4 = 47 \)
• Q = 5: \( 196 \div 5 = 39.2 \)

MC = change in TC as output rises by 1 unit:

• Q = 1: \( 140 - 100 = 40 \)
• Q = 2: \( 164 - 140 = 24 \)
• Q = 3: \( 180 - 164 = 16 \)
• Q = 4: \( 188 - 180 = 8 \)
• Q = 5: \( 196 - 188 = 8 \)

Completed schedule

Notice that AVC and ATC both fall as output rises, showing the firm is spreading its fixed cost of N100 over more units and enjoying increasing returns over this range.

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These terms describe how the rate of tax changes as a taxpayer's income (the tax base) rises.

• (a) Proportional tax: the same percentage rate is charged on every income, so the tax paid rises in exact proportion to income. If the rate is 10%, a person earning \(N100{,}000\) pays \(N10{,}000\) and a person earning \(N200{,}000\) pays \(N20{,}000\); the burden as a fraction of income stays constant.
• (b) Progressive tax: the rate rises as income rises, so higher-income earners pay a larger percentage of their income than lower-income earners. For example, the first band may be taxed at 7%, a higher band at 15%, and so on. It is used to redistribute income and reduce inequality.
• (c) Regressive tax: the rate falls as income rises, so lower-income earners pay a larger percentage of their income than higher-income earners. A flat sum, such as a poll tax or an indirect tax on a necessity, takes a bigger fraction of a poor person's income than of a rich person's income.

The key contrast is what happens to the average rate of tax as income grows: it stays the same (proportional), rises (progressive), or falls (regressive).

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The Central Bank (the Central Bank of Nigeria) supervises the banking system and controls the amount of credit that commercial banks create. It does this using the following instruments:

• Open market operations (OMO): the Central Bank sells government securities to reduce banks' cash and cut lending, or buys them to increase banks' cash and expand lending.
• Bank (discount) rate: by raising the rate at which it lends to banks as lender of last resort, it makes borrowing costly and discourages excessive lending; lowering it does the opposite.
• Cash reserve ratio: it fixes the minimum fraction of deposits banks must keep with it; raising the ratio reduces the funds banks can lend.
• Liquidity ratio: it stipulates the minimum proportion of liquid assets a bank must hold, limiting how much it can advance.
• Special deposits: it can require banks to lodge extra deposits with it, freezing part of their lendable funds.
• Selective credit control: it directs banks to lend more to priority sectors (e.g. agriculture) and less to others.
• Moral suasion: it appeals to and persuades banks to follow desired lending policies.
• Direct directives and regulation: it issues rules and guidelines and can penalise banks that breach them.

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Left to private investors alone, industries tend to cluster in a few favoured commercial centres. Government therefore participates in deciding where industries are located in Nigeria for the following reasons:

• To reduce regional inequality: spreading industries across states promotes balanced and even development instead of concentrating wealth in a few cities.
• To create employment in rural and less-developed areas, thereby raising incomes there.
• To reduce rural-urban migration: siting industries near rural areas keeps people employed at home and eases pressure on big cities.
• To develop backward or neglected areas by providing infrastructure such as roads, electricity and water alongside the industries.
• For strategic and security reasons: certain sensitive industries are sited away from borders or vulnerable locations.
• To exploit and add value to local raw materials by locating processing industries close to their sources, e.g. agricultural or mineral zones.
• To decongest existing industrial centres and reduce pollution and pressure on facilities in overcrowded cities.
• To promote national unity by distributing the benefits of industrialisation evenly among the regions.

Awọn alaye Idahun

A wholesaler is a middleman who buys goods in large quantities from manufacturers and sells them in smaller quantities to retailers. In doing so, the wholesaler performs the following functions for the manufacturer:

• Provides a ready market: by buying in bulk the wholesaler relieves the manufacturer of the burden of searching for many small buyers.
• Bulk purchase and storage: the wholesaler takes large output off the factory, holds stock in warehouses, and so frees the manufacturer's storage space.
• Finances the manufacturer: prompt cash payment on collection gives the manufacturer working capital to continue production.
• Bears risks: once goods are bought, the wholesaler carries the risks of price fall, damage, deterioration and theft.
• Distribution: the wholesaler breaks bulk and spreads the goods to scattered retailers, sparing the manufacturer the cost of wide distribution.
• Provides market information: the wholesaler advises the manufacturer on consumer taste, quality and demand, guiding production decisions.
• Advertising and promotion: the wholesaler helps publicise and promote the manufacturer's products.
• Stabilises prices: by holding stock and releasing it steadily, the wholesaler helps even out supply and price fluctuations.

Awọn alaye Idahun

Measures of central tendency are single values that summarise a whole set of data by locating its centre. The three common measures are the mean, the median and the mode.

(a) Explanations

• Mean (arithmetic mean): the sum of all the values divided by the number of values. For values \(x_1, x_2, \dots, x_n\), \(\bar{x} = \dfrac{\sum x}{n}\). It uses every observation, so it is affected by extreme values.
• Median: the middle value when the data are arranged in order of size. With an even number of items it is the average of the two middle values. It is not distorted by extreme values.
• Mode: the value that occurs most frequently in the data. A set may have one mode, more than one mode, or none.

(b) Calculations for 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 23, 28, 29, 30, 24, 31, 34, 23 (there are \(n = 14\) numbers).

Mean: the sum of the values is 363.

Median: arrange in ascending order: 21, 22, 23, 23, 23, 24, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34. With 14 items the median is the average of the 7th and 8th values (24 and 25).

Mode: the value 23 occurs three times, more often than any other value, so the mode is 23.