WAEC SSCE - Government - 2019

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Proportional representation is the ideal electoral system for a heterogeneous society. In a heterogeneous society, there are often multiple ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups with diverse interests and opinions. Proportional representation allows for a more accurate representation of these diverse groups in government. Under proportional representation, political parties are allocated seats in the legislative body based on the percentage of votes they receive. This means that smaller parties or minority groups have a better chance of winning representation in government, as their votes are not wasted if they don't win the majority in a particular constituency. In contrast, a simple majority system, where the candidate with the most votes wins, can be problematic in a heterogeneous society. This system tends to favor the larger, more dominant groups, and can lead to a winner-takes-all mentality, which can be divisive. A preferential ballot system, where voters rank candidates in order of preference, can be useful in ensuring that a majority of voters support the winning candidate. However, it may not necessarily result in fair representation for all groups in a heterogeneous society. Finally, a non-transferable vote system, where voters choose a single candidate and do not have the option to rank their preferences, can also be problematic in a heterogeneous society. It can lead to the exclusion of minority groups, as their votes are often scattered across multiple candidates and may not translate into representation.

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A unitary system is characterized by a centralized government that has control over all the administrative divisions within a country. It is a system where power is concentrated in the hands of a single central authority. In a unitary system, the central government has the power to make decisions and policies that affect the entire country, and the administrative divisions have limited autonomy. A homogeneous society refers to a society where the people have similar backgrounds, beliefs, and values. This characteristic is not directly related to the type of government system, as a homogeneous society can exist within a unitary, federal, or any other type of government.

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A constitution performs the role of stating the functions and limitations of leaders. A constitution is a set of laws and principles that serve as the supreme law of a country. It outlines the structure of the government, defines the powers of the different branches of government, and sets limits on what the government can and cannot do. By doing so, a constitution helps to ensure that the government operates within the bounds of the law, and protects the rights and freedoms of citizens. This means that the leaders of a country must abide by the rules and limits set forth in the constitution, and that the government is accountable to the people.

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The person who provided detailed work on sovereignty is Jean Bodin. Bodin was a French philosopher and political theorist who lived in the 16th century. His most famous work, "Six Books of the Commonwealth," is a comprehensive treatise on political theory that discusses the concept of sovereignty in great detail. According to Bodin, sovereignty is the ultimate power that resides in a state. It is the power to make and enforce laws, to regulate commerce, to conduct foreign relations, and to defend the state from external threats. Bodin argued that sovereignty must be absolute and indivisible, meaning that it cannot be shared or divided among different branches of government. Bodin's work on sovereignty had a significant impact on the development of modern political theory. His ideas influenced thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, who also wrote extensively on sovereignty and the role of the state in society.

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Any type of restricted franchise is a violation of the principle of political equality. Political equality means that all citizens have an equal say in how their government is run and that their votes carry the same weight as others. When some citizens are denied the right to vote or have their vote suppressed, it undermines the principle of political equality. This is because it gives certain groups of people more power and influence than others, which can lead to unfair policies and decisions. Therefore, any restriction on the right to vote or participate in the political process is considered a violation of political equality.

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ECOWAS has waived visa requirements for citizens of member countries to facilitate movement of people from one member to another. This means that citizens of any member country can travel to another member country without having to obtain a visa beforehand. This helps to promote free movement of people, trade, and investment within the region, which is one of the key objectives of ECOWAS. This also makes it easier for people to travel for tourism, business, education, and other purposes, without being restricted by visa requirements.

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Age is not a component of political culture. Political culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, norms, and attitudes that shape people's political behavior and institutions in a given society. Norms refer to the unwritten rules and social expectations that guide behavior in a society, such as the norm of respecting the rights of others. Beliefs refer to the attitudes and convictions that people hold about the world and their place in it, such as the belief in the importance of freedom of speech. Attitudes refer to the evaluations and feelings that people have towards political actors and issues, such as their attitudes towards the government or specific policies. Age, on the other hand, is a demographic characteristic of individuals and does not fall under the category of shared values and beliefs that define political culture. While age may influence a person's political behavior and attitudes, it is not a defining feature of the broader political culture of a society.

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The Nationalist agitation in British West Africa after World War II led to the formation of political parties. This means that people in this region started to organize themselves into groups with similar political beliefs and goals, with the aim of advocating for their rights and independence from British rule. These political parties played a major role in the eventual independence of many countries in West Africa.

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The political parties established in West Africa in the 1950s were primarily aimed at securing independence for their people. Prior to this time, the various West African colonies were under British colonial rule, and the political parties were formed as a means of demanding greater political representation and self-determination. These political parties sought to achieve independence through peaceful means, such as negotiations and protests. They aimed to challenge the colonial authorities and pressure the British government to grant them greater autonomy and eventually independence. Participating in colonial administration or introducing guerrilla warfare against Europeans were not the main objectives of these political parties. Rather, they sought to represent their people in the political process and advocate for their interests within the framework of the British colonial system. Ultimately, the political parties' efforts, coupled with various other factors, led to the achievement of independence for many West African countries in the 1960s.

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The power of the electorate signifies political sovereignty. Political sovereignty refers to the supreme and ultimate authority within a political system. In democratic systems, the power of the electorate represents the ultimate source of political authority. The people, through their right to vote, have the power to choose their leaders and to influence the direction of the country. By participating in elections and exercising their right to vote, the electorate plays a crucial role in shaping the political landscape and determining the policies and decisions of the government. This means that the power of the electorate is a key component of political sovereignty, as it gives the people the ability to hold their leaders accountable and to shape the future of their country.

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The major concern of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is world "peace." The UNO was created after World War II to prevent future wars and promote peaceful coexistence among nations. The UNO works towards this goal by facilitating international cooperation, promoting human rights, and providing a forum for countries to discuss and resolve disputes peacefully. It also deploys peacekeeping forces to regions where conflicts have broken out, and provides humanitarian aid to those affected by war and other crises. While the UNO also works on other important issues such as trade, health, and cooperation, its primary focus is on maintaining international peace and security.

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Public corporations are referred to as statutory bodies because they are established by "Acts of Parliament." An Act of Parliament is a law made by a legislative body, such as a national or state parliament. In the case of public corporations, an Act of Parliament provides the legal framework for their establishment, operation, and regulation. This means that public corporations are created and governed by law, and their powers and responsibilities are defined by the Act of Parliament that established them. This legal framework also gives public corporations a degree of autonomy from the government, allowing them to operate independently within the limits set by their governing legislation. Public corporations can be established to provide a wide range of services, including transportation, energy, healthcare, and education.

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The constitutional power given to the judiciary to interpret laws made by the legislative branch, actions taken by the executive branch, and administrative procedures, and to decide whether they are consistent with the Constitution is known as judicial review. In other words, the judiciary has the authority to review and determine the constitutionality of laws and actions taken by the government, and to strike down those that violate the Constitution. This power is an important part of the system of checks and balances established in the Constitution, which ensures that no one branch of government has too much power.

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The major problem facing electoral management bodies in West Africa is electoral malpractice. Electoral malpractice refers to unethical or illegal actions that can occur during an election, such as vote buying, ballot stuffing, or manipulation of the vote count. These practices can undermine the integrity of an election and call into question the legitimacy of the results. Electoral management bodies, such as independent commissions, are responsible for overseeing and administering elections in a fair and transparent manner. When electoral malpractice occurs, it can be difficult for these bodies to ensure the credibility of the election and to maintain public trust in the electoral process. This can be a major challenge for electoral management bodies in West Africa and can have far-reaching implications for the stability and democracy of the region.

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The confederal system of government is unpopular because all the component units, such as states or provinces, are considered sovereign and have a lot of power. This can lead to difficulties in coordinating and making decisions on a national level, which can slow down progress and development. Additionally, because each component unit has a significant amount of power, there is a risk that the government may operate more like an oligarchy rather than a true democracy. Finally, there is a risk that due process may not be followed if the confederal system does not have strong checks and balances in place to ensure that all levels of government are held accountable for their actions.

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Conventions and usages are rules based on traditions and customs. These are social norms and practices that have developed over time within a particular community or society. They guide the behavior and interactions of individuals and groups within that society. Conventions and usages can vary across different cultures and can change over time as attitudes and values evolve. Examples of conventions and usages include social etiquette, dress codes, and business practices. They are not typically codified in legal documents or previous constitutions, but they are often recognized and respected by those who follow them.

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Impeachment is a process that is unique to the presidential system of government. In a presidential system, the head of state (the president) is separate from the head of government (the prime minister). The president is elected directly by the people and has significant executive powers. In some cases, if the president is believed to have committed a serious crime or abuse of power, the process of impeachment can be initiated. The impeachment process involves the legislative branch of government (usually the lower house of the legislature, such as the House of Representatives in the United States) bringing formal charges against the president. If a majority of the members of the legislative branch vote to impeach the president, the case is then tried by the judiciary, usually the upper house of the legislature (such as the Senate in the United States). If two-thirds of the members of the judiciary find the president guilty, the president is removed from office. In simple terms, impeachment is a way for the legislative branch to hold the president accountable for their actions and remove them from office if necessary.

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The authority of the state is collectively exercised by the executive, legislative, and judiciary. These are the three branches of government that work together to govern a country. The executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws, as well as managing the day-to-day operations of government. It includes the president or prime minister, as well as other officials such as cabinet members and agency heads. The legislative branch is responsible for making laws. It includes the parliament or congress, which is made up of elected representatives who debate and pass laws. The judiciary branch is responsible for interpreting and enforcing laws. It includes the courts and judges, who make decisions based on the law and the facts of each case. The separation of powers between these three branches of government is an important feature of democratic systems, as it helps to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and abusing its authority. It also allows each branch to act as a check on the others, ensuring that the government as a whole is accountable to the people. In summary, the authority of the state is collectively exercised by the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of government, which work together to govern a country and ensure that the government is accountable to the people.

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The first inter-territorial association organized by some educated African elite in the Gold Coast was the Aborigine's Rights Protection Society (ARPS). It was formed in 1897 by a group of educated Africans led by John Mensah Sarbah to advocate for the rights of indigenous people in the Gold Coast who were being mistreated and exploited by colonial powers. The ARPS was one of the earliest forms of organized resistance against colonialism in West Africa and paved the way for the emergence of other nationalist movements in the region.

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The family and peer groups are important agents of political socialization. Political socialization is the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs, values, and behaviors. The family and peer groups are important agents of political socialization because they play a crucial role in shaping an individual's political identity. Family members are often the first people with whom individuals have political discussions and interactions. They can provide a foundation for an individual's political beliefs and values through discussions, modeling behaviors, and expressing political opinions. Families can also create a sense of political identity and belonging, which can influence an individual's political participation. Peer groups, such as friends and classmates, also play an important role in an individual's political socialization. Peer groups can expose individuals to different political perspectives and beliefs, which can challenge their existing beliefs and help them develop more nuanced political attitudes. Peer groups can also influence an individual's political behaviors, such as voting or participating in political activism. Overall, the family and peer groups are important agents of political socialization because they shape an individual's political identity and can influence their political beliefs, values, and behaviors.

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The body responsible for the execution of the policies of government is the civil service. The civil service is a group of individuals who are employed by the government to help implement and deliver its policies and services. They work in various government departments and agencies, and are responsible for carrying out the day-to-day operations of government. The civil service is an important part of the machinery of government, as it helps to ensure that government policies are implemented efficiently and effectively. Civil servants are required to be politically neutral and impartial, and to provide honest and objective advice to their political masters. This helps to ensure that government decisions are based on the best available evidence and expertise, and that they are made in the best interests of the public. In summary, the civil service is responsible for implementing government policies, providing advice to politicians, and ensuring that government operations are carried out effectively and efficiently.

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The Electorate refers to citizens who are qualified and registered to vote in an election. It is the group of individuals who have the right to cast their ballots and choose their representatives in a democratic system of government. The Electorate includes all eligible voters regardless of their political affiliation, social status, or any other characteristic. It is the foundation of a democratic system, as it provides citizens with the opportunity to participate in the political process and have a say in how their government is run. The other options mentioned - intended candidates for voting, elected party members, and elected civil society groups - do not accurately define the term Electorate.

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Labour groups mostly come under the umbrella of the Trades Union Congress. The Trades Union Congress (TUC) is a national organization in the UK that represents the interests of trade unions and their members. Trade unions are groups of workers who come together to negotiate better wages, benefits, and working conditions with their employers. The TUC acts as a representative for these unions, providing support and advocacy for workers' rights. In this way, the TUC serves as an umbrella organization for labour groups, bringing together different unions and their members to speak with a unified voice on issues affecting the UK's working people.

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Military might is a major determinant of a country's foreign policy. A country's military strength can play a crucial role in shaping its foreign policy by providing it with the ability to protect its own interests and project power abroad. A strong military can deter potential aggressors and help a country negotiate from a position of strength, while a weak military may leave a country vulnerable to threats and unable to defend its interests. In this way, a country's military might can have a significant impact on its relationships with other countries and its ability to pursue its goals and interests in the international arena.

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The colonial administration that sought to integrate their West African colonies with their home country was the French. The French believed in the policy of "assimilation," which meant that they aimed to make their colonies an extension of France itself. They attempted to achieve this by imposing French culture, language, and education on the local populations. They also encouraged French people to settle in the colonies and treated the colonies as integral parts of France rather than separate entities. This policy was most prominent in French West Africa, where the French implemented a centralized administration and encouraged local chiefs and elites to become part of the French system. This policy was intended to create a class of educated and French-speaking Africans who would serve as intermediaries between the French colonial administration and the local populations. Overall, the French policy of assimilation had a significant impact on West Africa and was one of the main factors contributing to the development of modern African nations.

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The ECOWAS monitoring group (ECOMOG) was established to restore peace to war-torn West African countries. ECOMOG is a regional peacekeeping force established by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to intervene in conflicts and crises in the region. It was created in 1990 to address the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone and has since been involved in several other peacekeeping operations in West Africa. The primary goal of ECOMOG is to restore and maintain peace and security in the region, protect civilians, and support the democratic process.

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The Commonwealth Secretariat is located in London, England. It is the main administrative body of the Commonwealth of Nations, which is a political association of 54 member countries, mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Secretariat provides support to member countries in areas such as democracy and human rights, economic development, and education. It helps member countries to work together and achieve common goals, and promotes cooperation and understanding among its members.

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The ultimate duty of a citizen is to demonstrate his/her allegiance to the sovereign or loyalty to the state. This means that a citizen is expected to show loyalty and obedience to the country and its government. This can be demonstrated through actions such as following the laws, paying taxes, serving in the military if required, and participating in the democratic process. In simple terms, a citizen's ultimate duty is to support their country and its government, and to work towards its betterment.

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The obligation of a citizen refers to the duties or responsibilities that a person must fulfill as a member of a community or country. Out of the given options, attending religious gatherings is not an obligation of a citizen. While freedom of religion is a fundamental right in many countries, attending religious gatherings is a personal choice and not mandatory. It is not a duty that is required of citizens by law or by the government. On the other hand, payment of taxes is necessary to fund public services and infrastructure that benefit the community. Voting in elections is a civic duty that allows citizens to have a say in their government and choose their representatives. Protecting public property is also a responsibility that citizens must fulfill to ensure the safety and security of their community.

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The implementation of indirect rule was supervised by British officials. Indirect rule was a system of colonial administration used by the British in some of their African colonies, in which local traditional rulers (chiefs and councils of elders) were appointed as intermediaries between the colonial government and the local population. However, these traditional rulers were supervised and controlled by British officials, who held ultimate authority and made all major decisions. The British officials trained and worked closely with the local rulers, but they ultimately held the power to veto or overrule any decisions made by them. This system was used to maintain colonial control while minimizing the cost and difficulty of direct rule.

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Local government is relevant because it provides political participation at the grassroots level. This means that it enables citizens to have a direct say in the decision-making processes that affect their local communities. By providing a platform for individuals to voice their concerns and ideas, local government fosters discussion among the electorate and helps to ensure that the needs and opinions of local citizens are taken into account. This participation also helps to create discipline among party members, as they are accountable to their constituents. Additionally, local government can provide representation in the judiciary by selecting judges for local courts.

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The right to govern and administer the affairs of the people of a country is called "authority." It refers to the legitimate power that a government or a leader has to make decisions, enforce laws, and manage the affairs of a nation. This authority is granted by the people through a democratic process such as elections, or by other means such as inheritance or coup d'état. Authority is different from power, which refers to the ability to influence or control others, and from diplomacy, which is the art of negotiating with other nations. While authority can be enforced through the use of power, it is ultimately based on the consent of the governed, and is therefore a crucial aspect of democratic governance.

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The agency responsible for fulfilling the purpose of the state is the government. The government is the governing body of a country, state or community, which has the authority to make and enforce laws, manage public resources, provide public services, and protect the rights and welfare of its citizens. The government is responsible for promoting the common good and ensuring the well-being of society as a whole. This is typically achieved through a system of democratic representation where citizens vote to elect leaders who will govern in their interests. Pressure groups, public corporations, and media can all play important roles in shaping government policies and actions, but they are not the primary agency responsible for fulfilling the purpose of the state.

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The major role of minority parties in parliament is to ensure democratic governance. In a democratic society, the majority party often has more power and influence in parliament than minority parties. However, minority parties still play an essential role in ensuring that democracy is upheld. One way that minority parties help to ensure democratic governance is by providing checks and balances on the majority party's power. By questioning government policies and holding the majority party accountable for its actions, minority parties can help prevent abuses of power and ensure that the government is acting in the best interests of the people. Additionally, minority parties often represent diverse perspectives and voices that might otherwise be overlooked in the political process. By bringing attention to issues that might otherwise go unaddressed, minority parties can help ensure that all voices are heard and that the needs of all citizens are considered. While minority parties may not have the same level of influence as the majority party, their role in ensuring democratic governance is crucial to maintaining a healthy and functioning democracy.

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The check on the powers of chiefs during the pre-colonial era that did not exist was British Officials. During the pre-colonial era, the powers of chiefs were checked by the Kingsmakers, the Council of Elders, and the Age grades. These were traditional systems of governance in various African societies that helped to balance the power of the chief and ensure that their actions were in line with the customs and beliefs of the community. However, British Officials were a colonial influence that was introduced during the colonial period and did not exist in the pre-colonial era.

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The reason widely espoused for military intervention and rules in West Africa that does not fit among the given options is "religion." Tribalism and Nepotism, inordinate ambition of soldiers, and maladministration are often cited as reasons for military intervention in West Africa. Tribalism and Nepotism refer to favoring members of one's own ethnic or family group in political and economic affairs, leading to inequality and political instability. Inordinate ambition of soldiers refers to the desire of military leaders to seize power and control government affairs, often resulting in military coups and human rights abuses. Maladministration refers to poor governance, corruption, and mismanagement of public resources, leading to poor service delivery and lack of development. Religion, on the other hand, is not typically a reason for military intervention in West Africa. While religious conflicts and tensions do exist in the region, they are generally not a primary factor in military coups or interventions. Instead, political, economic, and social factors tend to be the main drivers of military intervention and rule in West Africa.

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Roles of the mass media in strengthening modern democracy

1. Provision of information: The media keep citizens informed about government activities, policies and public affairs, so that they can make informed political choices.
2. Political education and mobilisation: They enlighten citizens on their rights and duties and encourage participation in elections and other democratic processes.
3. Watchdog role: The media expose corruption, abuse of office and bad governance, thereby holding leaders accountable to the people.
4. Platform for public opinion and debate: They provide a forum where different views and criticisms are freely aired, allowing government to know the wishes of the people.
5. Promotion of transparency and free, fair elections: Through election coverage and monitoring, the media help to check malpractice and ensure credible elections.
6. Protection of rights and freedoms: By defending free speech and reporting violations, the media help to safeguard the fundamental rights on which democracy rests.

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(a) Types of elections

1. General election - held at regular intervals to elect representatives into all elective offices at the same time.
2. By-election - held to fill a single vacant seat that has fallen vacant through death, resignation or removal of a member.
3. Primary election - conducted within a political party to select its candidates for a forthcoming general election.

(Others include run-off and referendum.)

(b) Purposes elections serve in a democratic state

1. Selection of leaders: Elections provide a peaceful and orderly means of choosing those who will govern.
2. Conferment of legitimacy: A government that wins a free and fair election enjoys the mandate and acceptance of the people.
3. Political participation: Elections give citizens the opportunity to take part in the governance of their country.
4. Ensuring accountability: Through periodic elections, the people can reward good leaders by re-electing them and punish bad ones by voting them out.

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Reasons for the study of government

1. To understand the structure and functions of government: It teaches how the organs of government (executive, legislature and judiciary) are organised and how they operate.
2. To produce good and informed citizens: It makes people aware of their rights, duties and civic responsibilities, so that they can participate effectively in public affairs.
3. To promote political awareness and participation: Knowledge of government encourages citizens to take part in elections, debates and other political activities.
4. To understand one's rights and obligations: Citizens learn the rights the state guarantees them and the obligations they owe the state, and how to protect those rights.
5. To provide a foundation for careers and further study: It prepares students for professions such as law, administration, diplomacy and politics, and for higher studies in the social sciences.
6. To promote patriotism and national consciousness: Understanding how the nation is governed fosters loyalty, unity and support for the state.

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(a) Three contributions of the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) to the nationalist struggle

1. It demanded the introduction of the elective principle, which was granted in the Clifford Constitution of 1922.
2. It agitated for greater African participation in the Legislative Councils and in the administration of the colonies.
3. It called for the establishment of a West African university and improved higher education for Africans.
4. It fostered a spirit of West African unity and cooperation among the British colonies (Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and the Gambia).

(Any three of the above are correct.)

(b) Four contributions of Nnamdi Azikiwe to the nationalist struggle of Nigeria

1. He used his newspapers, especially the West African Pilot, to awaken national consciousness and attack colonial rule.
2. He co-founded and led the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), a leading nationalist party.
3. He mobilised the youth and the masses and championed the demand for self-government and independence.
4. He participated in the constitutional conferences that led to Nigeria's independence in 1960.
5. He became the first indigenous Governor-General and later the first President of Nigeria, symbolising the triumph of nationalism.

(Any four of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Three key members of the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)

1. Ernest Ikoli
2. H. O. Davies
3. Nnamdi Azikiwe
4. Samuel Akinsanya
5. Dr. J. C. Vaughan

(Any three of the above are correct.)

(b) Four achievements of the NYM in the political development of Nigeria

1. First truly nationalist organisation: It broadened nationalism beyond Lagos by drawing membership from different parts of the country, thus fostering national consciousness.
2. Formation of the Youth Charter: It produced a political programme (the Nigerian Youth Charter) demanding improved political and economic conditions and greater African participation in government.
3. Electoral success: In 1938 it defeated Herbert Macaulay's NNDP in the Lagos Town Council and Legislative Council elections, ending the NNDP's dominance.
4. Political training and awakening: It produced a generation of nationalist leaders and educated Nigerians on their political rights and the need for self-government.
5. Agitation for reforms: It campaigned against discrimination in the civil service and demanded better education and economic opportunities for Nigerians.

(Any four of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Meaning of NEPAD

The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) is a socio-economic development programme and framework of the African Union, adopted in 2001, through which African leaders pledged to promote the sustainable development of the continent. It is a home-grown initiative in which African states take ownership and responsibility for their own development while seeking a new partnership with the developed world and the international community.

(b) Four objectives of NEPAD

1. To eradicate poverty and place African countries on a path of sustainable growth and development.
2. To promote the accelerated economic growth and development of the continent and its integration into the global economy.
3. To halt the marginalisation of Africa in the globalisation process and enhance its full participation.
4. To promote good governance, democracy, peace, security, human rights and sound economic management.
5. To empower women and promote the role of women in social and economic development.
6. To attract foreign investment and mobilise resources for infrastructure, education and health.

(Any four of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Pre-independence constitutions in Nigeria

1. Clifford Constitution of 1922.
2. Richards Constitution of 1946.
3. Macpherson Constitution of 1951.

(The Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 was also pre-independence.)

(b) Features of the 1960 Independence Constitution of Nigeria

1. It established a parliamentary (cabinet) system of government with a Prime Minister as head of government and a Governor-General representing the Queen as ceremonial head of state.
2. It provided for a federal structure with three regions (Northern, Eastern and Western) each having its own government.
3. It entrenched fundamental human rights in the constitution.
4. It provided for a bicameral legislature at the centre (a Senate and a House of Representatives).
5. Nigeria remained within the Commonwealth, with the Queen as titular head, and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final court of appeal.

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(a) Problems confronting Nigerian federalism

1. Ethnicity and tribalism: Strong ethnic loyalties and mutual suspicion among the many ethnic groups threaten national unity.
2. Revenue allocation and resource control disputes: Persistent quarrels over how national revenue, especially oil money, should be shared among the levels of government.

(Others include over-centralisation of power at the centre, agitation for the creation of more states, and religious differences.)

(b) Features of Nigerian federalism

1. Division of powers among three tiers of government (federal, state and local), with exclusive, concurrent and residual lists.
2. A supreme written constitution that shares powers and is binding on all levels of government.
3. An independent Supreme Court that interprets the constitution and settles disputes between the federal and state governments.

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(a) What is Local Government?

Local government is the third tier or level of government established by law to administer the affairs of a defined local area under its own elected council, with power to make bye-laws, provide services and raise some revenue, though under the general supervision of the central or state government. It is government at the grassroots, closest to the people.

(b) Reasons for the creation of Local Government

1. To bring government closer to the people at the grassroots and make services more accessible to rural dwellers.
2. To promote grassroots participation in governance and give the local people a say in decisions that affect them.
3. To ensure rapid development of the local areas through the provision of basic amenities such as roads, markets, health centres and primary schools.
4. To reduce the workload of the central and state governments by handling purely local matters.
5. To serve as a training ground for future political leaders and administrators.

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(a) Who is a citizen?

A citizen is a legally recognised member of a state who enjoys full rights and privileges and owes allegiance and obligations to that state. Citizenship may be acquired by birth, by descent, by registration or by naturalisation. A citizen, unlike an alien, has full political rights such as the right to vote and to be voted for.

(b) Responsibilities of a citizen to the state

1. Obedience to the laws of the land and respect for constituted authority.
2. Payment of taxes, rates and other lawful dues to enable the state provide services.
3. Loyalty and defence of the country: being patriotic and ready to defend the nation against internal and external enemies.
4. Participation in civic duties such as voting during elections, serving on juries and rendering national service.