WAEC SSCE - Government - 1997

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The idea of separation of powers was developed by French philosopher Charles-Louis de Secondat, also known as Baron de Montesquieu. In his book "The Spirit of the Laws" published in 1748, he argued that the power of the government should be divided into separate branches to prevent any one person or group from becoming too powerful. Montesquieu suggested that these branches should be the legislative, executive, and judicial, with each branch having its own distinct powers and responsibilities. This idea has been influential in the development of modern democracies, including the United States Constitution, which is based on the principle of separation of powers.

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The General Conference of 1950 on Nigeria was held in Ibadan. The conference was a significant event in Nigeria's history, where delegates from various regions of the country gathered to discuss the future of Nigeria and its political structure. The conference was held in the University College, Ibadan, and was presided over by the Governor-General of Nigeria, Sir John Stuart Macpherson. The conference was convened to consider the Richards Constitution, which was introduced in 1946, and to discuss proposals for a new constitution for Nigeria. Delegates at the conference discussed issues such as regionalism, the creation of a central government, and the need for Nigeria to gain independence from British colonial rule. The conference led to the establishment of the Macpherson Constitution, which provided a framework for Nigeria's governance until independence in 1960. In summary, the General Conference of 1950 on Nigeria was held in Ibadan and was a significant event in the country's history. It helped to shape the political structure of Nigeria and laid the foundation for the country's eventual independence.

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One of the features of the Local Government Reforms of 1976 in Nigeria was the introduction of full-time chairmen and supervisory councillors. Prior to this reform, local governments in Nigeria were managed by part-time officials who held other jobs outside of their positions in the local government. The introduction of full-time officials was intended to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of local government administration. Supervisory councillors were also introduced to oversee the activities of the local government chairmen and ensure that they carried out their responsibilities in accordance with the law. This feature of the 1976 local government reform is seen as an important step towards strengthening local government administration in Nigeria.

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The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) was formed in 1920 by nationalist leaders across the British colonies in West Africa. One of the main effects of their agitations was the election of Africans into the Legislative Councils. The NCBWA was formed to demand for greater participation of Africans in the governance of their countries, and this demand for representation was one of the major outcomes of their protests.

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A two-party system means that there are only two dominant political parties in a country that have significant support from voters and can compete in elections at a national level. It does not necessarily mean that these two parties are the only ones allowed to exist or form coalitions with other parties. However, in practice, a two-party system tends to make it difficult for smaller parties to gain a foothold and win elections. Additionally, while the two dominant parties may not always be the ones in power, they are usually the most likely to be able to capture power.

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Political parties mobilize the support of the electorate by campaigning. This involves communicating their political platform, values, and vision to the public through various means such as rallies, advertisements, and media appearances. Parties also use campaigning to differentiate themselves from other parties and to highlight their strengths and achievements. In addition to campaigning, parties also engage in grassroots organizing, such as door-to-door canvassing, to build support and establish personal connections with voters. Parties may also engage in alliances or coalitions with other parties or interest groups to broaden their base of support. It is important to note that political parties should engage in legal and peaceful means of mobilizing support, as promoting violence, rigging elections, and encouraging coup d'etats are not acceptable practices and can lead to political instability and unrest.

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The main duty of the Civil Service Commission under the Nigerian Republican Constitution was "the recruitment, discipline, and promotion of civil servants." The commission was responsible for ensuring that only qualified persons were appointed as civil servants, that they were fairly and effectively disciplined, and that they were promoted based on merit and seniority. The commission was established to promote efficiency, impartiality, and professionalism in the civil service.

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The French policy of Assimilation attempted to make the Africans think and behave like French citizens. Assimilation was a colonial policy adopted by the French in Africa during the 19th and 20th centuries, which aimed to transform the colonies into extensions of France itself. This policy required the Africans to adopt French language, culture, and values, and to assimilate into French society. It involved a process of forced acculturation, which was achieved through the establishment of French schools, the imposition of French laws and institutions, and the exclusion of African cultures and traditions. The policy of Assimilation was criticized for its disregard of African cultures and traditions, and its promotion of a one-size-fits-all approach to governance. It was eventually abandoned in the mid-20th century, in favor of a more decentralized approach to colonial rule.

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The President, the Ministers, the Civil Servants, and the Police make up the Executive branch of government. The Executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies that are passed by the Legislature. The President is the head of the Executive branch and serves as the chief executive of the country, with the power to appoint and dismiss Ministers and Civil Servants. The Ministers are responsible for overseeing different sectors or departments of the government, while the Civil Servants carry out the day-to-day operations of the government. The Police, as a part of the Executive branch, are responsible for maintaining law and order and enforcing the laws of the country. The Executive branch works closely with the Legislature and the Judiciary, which make up the other two branches of government, to ensure that the government functions effectively and efficiently.

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The Fascist movement originated in Italy in the early 20th century. Fascism is a political ideology that emphasizes authoritarianism, nationalism, and militarism. The founder of the Fascist movement was Benito Mussolini, who rose to power in Italy in 1922. The Fascist movement was a response to the political and social instability that followed World War I in Europe. Mussolini believed that Italy needed a strong leader who could restore order and national pride. He developed a political philosophy that combined extreme nationalism, aggressive militarism, and a rejection of democracy. The Fascist movement quickly gained support in Italy, and Mussolini became the country's leader in 1922. He created a one-party state and suppressed all opposition. Mussolini's government was characterized by extreme authoritarianism, censorship, and the use of violence to suppress dissent. The Fascist movement in Italy served as a model for similar movements in other countries, including Germany and Spain. These movements shared many of the same characteristics as Italian Fascism, including extreme nationalism, militarism, and rejection of democracy. In summary, the Fascist movement originated in Italy in the early 20th century and was led by Benito Mussolini. It was a response to the political and social instability that followed World War I in Europe and emphasized authoritarianism, nationalism, and militarism. The Fascist movement in Italy served as a model for similar movements in other countries, including Germany and Spain.

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The main objective of a pressure group is to influence government policies without directly seeking to form the government or hold political power. Pressure groups are formed by individuals who share a common interest or goal and seek to influence decision-making processes of the government by lobbying, advocacy, and other forms of public engagement. The primary aim of a pressure group is to persuade those in power to change policies or take actions that would be beneficial to the group's interests or the broader society they represent. This is done through various means such as organizing protests, petitions, and other forms of activism that put pressure on decision-makers to take action.

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The first political party in Nigeria was formed by Sir Herbert Macaulay. He founded the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923, which was the first political party in Nigeria. The NNDP was established to represent the interests of the educated elite in Lagos, and it sought to promote the political and economic advancement of the Nigerian people. Macaulay was a prominent nationalist and a key figure in the struggle for Nigerian independence. He was known for his advocacy of democratic principles and his commitment to social justice. Under his leadership, the NNDP became the most influential political party in Nigeria in the 1930s and 1940s, and it laid the foundation for the emergence of other political parties in the country.

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Government control of public corporations in Nigeria is mainly to ensure public accountability. Public corporations are established by the government to provide essential services such as electricity, water supply, and transportation. As these corporations are owned by the government, they are accountable to the public. Government control of public corporations ensures that the corporations operate in the best interest of the public. The government sets policies and regulations that the corporations must follow, and also monitors their operations to ensure that they are providing quality services to the public. In addition to ensuring public accountability, government control of public corporations also allows for effective planning and management of resources. The government can use its control to ensure that the corporations are properly funded and staffed, and that they are able to operate efficiently. Overall, government control of public corporations in Nigeria is mainly to ensure public accountability and effective management of resources. This helps to ensure that the public receives essential services that meet their needs, and that resources are used efficiently to achieve this goal.

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A coalition government is more likely to produce a weak government compared to other options. This is because a coalition government is formed when two or more political parties come together to govern a country. This often leads to a compromise between parties, which can result in slow decision-making and implementation of policies. The parties in the coalition may also have differing political ideologies, which can lead to internal disagreements and conflicts. As a result, the coalition government may struggle to push through reforms and policies, and may not be able to effectively govern the country. In contrast, other forms of government, such as a two-party system or a presidential system, have more stable structures and may be more efficient in implementing policies.

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Government as an institution of the state means the structures and systems for decision-making in society. It refers to the formal organization of a society that has the authority to make, implement and enforce laws, rules and regulations that govern the behavior of its citizens. The government is responsible for managing public affairs and providing public goods and services to its citizens. This includes functions such as defense, law enforcement, education, healthcare, transportation, and infrastructure development. The government is also responsible for regulating economic activities, maintaining social order, and providing social services to the citizens. It is a means of achieving collective goals and objectives in a society. In summary, government as an institution of the state refers to the formal organization that has the authority to make, implement, and enforce laws and regulations in order to manage public affairs and provide public goods and services to its citizens.

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The ultimate aim of a political party is to gain control of the government by winning elections. Political parties seek to influence government policies by advocating for their preferred positions on issues and presenting their platforms to the electorate. However, their main goal is to gain power and control over the government so that they can implement their policies and programs. Political parties do not seek to discredit the government, but rather to provide alternative visions and leadership for the country. While political parties may provide for the welfare of their members, this is not their primary aim. Making government more effective may be a part of a political party's platform, but it is not the ultimate goal. The ultimate goal of a political party is to gain control of the government and use that power to implement their policies and programs.

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Out of the given options, the country that is a permanent member of the Security Council is China. The Security Council is one of the six main organs of the United Nations, and it is responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It has 15 members, out of which five are permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and ten are non-permanent members. The permanent members have the power of veto, which means that any of them can prevent the adoption of a substantive resolution. The permanent membership of China in the Security Council is due to its status as one of the major powers in the world, both economically and militarily.

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Nigeria's relations with other countries are largely determined by its national interest. This means that Nigeria's foreign policies are geared towards promoting and protecting its national interests, such as political, economic, and security interests. Nigeria's foreign policy decisions are based on the principle of non-alignment and the promotion of African unity and cooperation. Political culture, traditional rulers, opinions of exporters, and trade unions may influence Nigeria's foreign policy decisions to some extent, but the primary factor is always the country's national interest.

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A Nigerian may lose his citizenship if he renounces it in exchange for another citizenship. Renouncing Nigerian citizenship means giving up the rights and privileges that come with being a Nigerian citizen, including the right to live, work and vote in Nigeria. This is often done when an individual acquires citizenship of another country. If a Nigerian citizen voluntarily renounces his or her citizenship, he or she will lose all rights associated with Nigerian citizenship. However, being convicted for a criminal offence, losing an international passport, being deported from a foreign country or failing to pay taxes does not automatically lead to loss of Nigerian citizenship. Nigerian citizenship is a right conferred by birth or by registration, and it can only be voluntarily renounced.

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A civil servant in Nigeria is a person who is employed by the government in the civil service to carry out administrative and managerial tasks. Based on this definition, the person among the following who is a civil servant in Nigeria is a director in the Ministry of Defence. The managing director of a bank is a private sector employee, a major in the Army is a military officer, a Commissioner of Police is a member of the Nigeria Police Force, and a Pilot with the Nigerian Airways is an employee of the national carrier.

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Regionalism was fully operated in Nigeria by the Richard Constitution. The Richard Constitution was introduced in 1946 during the British colonial rule of Nigeria. The Constitution created a federal system of government, which divided Nigeria into three regions: the Northern Region, the Western Region, and the Eastern Region. Each region had its own government and legislature, with significant powers over local affairs. The introduction of regionalism was a significant departure from the previous system of centralized government, which had been in place before the Richard Constitution. Regionalism allowed for greater local control and autonomy, which was seen as a way to accommodate the diversity of Nigeria's ethnic groups and their different political aspirations. Under the Richard Constitution, each region had its own constitution and a governor appointed by the British colonial government. However, the Constitution also included provisions that ensured the ultimate authority of the British colonial government over Nigeria. For example, the governor-general, appointed by the British monarch, had the power to veto any legislation passed by the regional governments. In summary, regionalism was fully operated in Nigeria by the Richard Constitution, which created a federal system of government and divided Nigeria into three regions. While regionalism allowed for greater local control and autonomy, it also ensured the ultimate authority of the British colonial government over Nigeria.

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An indirect election takes place when the elected representatives vote on behalf of the electorate. In other words, instead of voters directly electing their representatives, they choose delegates or electors who then cast their vote on their behalf. This type of election is often used for selecting members of an upper house of a legislature or for electing the head of state. The electors may be elected by the people or may be appointed by other elected officials. This system is used in many countries and is designed to ensure that the most qualified and experienced candidates are elected. However, indirect elections can also be subject to manipulation and influence by those with power or money, leading to accusations of rigging or corruption.

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The Head of State that initiated the formation of ECOWAS was Yakubu Gowon, the former military head of state of Nigeria, along with Gnassingbé Eyadéma, the former president of Togo. They were instrumental in the establishment of ECOWAS in 1975, which is the Economic Community of West African States. ECOWAS is a regional intergovernmental organization that promotes economic cooperation, regional integration, and peace and security among its member states. It currently has 15 member countries in West Africa.

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The factor that enhances the operation of the Rule of Law is an independent judiciary. An independent judiciary means that judges are not influenced by outside pressures or influences, and can make impartial and fair decisions based on the law. This is important for upholding the rule of law because it ensures that everyone is subject to the same laws and treated fairly, regardless of their status or position. A well-equipped police force, establishment of modern press, enlightened citizens, and respect for leaders may all contribute to a stable and functioning society, but they do not necessarily enhance the operation of the rule of law.

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The ability of leaders to make and enforce decisions within a state is called political power. This power is granted to them through various means, such as a constitution, laws, or popular consent. Political power allows leaders to shape the policies and laws of a state, and to enforce them through institutions like the police or military. The extent of political power can vary greatly between different forms of government, with some granting more power to individual leaders, while others distribute power more equally among different branches or levels of government. Ultimately, the exercise of political power can greatly impact the lives of citizens, making it an important concept in political science and governance.

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Fundamental human rights are entrenched in the Constitution of a state to guarantee the liberty of citizens. These rights are considered essential to ensure that individuals have the freedom to live their lives without interference from the government or other individuals. By enshrining these rights in the Constitution, the government is obligated to protect them and prevent their violation by any individual or group. Having fundamental human rights also means that individuals can hold the government accountable for any breach of their rights, and they can seek redress through the courts. This, in turn, encourages good governance and prevents the abuse of power by those in authority. Therefore, guaranteeing the liberty of citizens is crucial to ensuring a just and fair society where all individuals have equal rights and opportunities.

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Constitutionalism emphasizes that those who govern the state should do so according to laid-down rules of public behavior. This means that those in power should not act based on their whims and caprices, their egos, or the direction of judges or critics. Instead, they should abide by the rules and principles set out in the constitution, which is the supreme law of the land. This includes respecting the rights and freedoms of citizens, upholding the rule of law, promoting social justice, and ensuring good governance. By following these guidelines, those in power can create a stable and just society where everyone can thrive.

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Membership of pressure groups is usually limited because these groups pursue specific and narrow objectives. Unlike political parties, which seek to represent a broad range of interests and concerns, pressure groups are focused on achieving a particular goal or set of goals. As a result, their membership is typically limited to those individuals who share these specific objectives and are willing to work towards achieving them. This allows pressure groups to be more effective in advocating for their cause, as they are able to mobilize a smaller, more dedicated group of supporters. Additionally, pressure groups often require a high level of commitment from their members, which can limit the number of people who are willing or able to join. However, this does not necessarily mean that pressure groups are not patriotic or that they have dictatorial leaders. It simply reflects the fact that these groups are focused on achieving a particular goal, rather than representing a broad range of interests.

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In the pre-colonial Yoruba Kingdom, the power to pass death sentence on an accused person was held by the Paramount Ruler. The Yoruba Kingdom was a traditional African kingdom that existed before the arrival of Europeans in West Africa. The kingdom was made up of several city-states, each with its own ruler. The Paramount Ruler, also known as the Alafin, was the supreme ruler of the Yoruba Kingdom. He was considered the highest authority in matters of law and justice. The Alafin was advised by a council of chiefs, but he had the final say in all decisions. In the Yoruba Kingdom, crimes such as murder, theft, and adultery were punishable by death. The accused person would be brought before the Alafin, who would preside over the trial. If the accused person was found guilty, the Alafin would pass the death sentence. The Yoruba Kingdom was a complex society with a rich tradition of law and justice. The power to pass death sentence was one of the most significant powers held by the Paramount Ruler, and it was a crucial part of the Yoruba legal system. In summary, the power to pass death sentence on an accused person in the pre-colonial Yoruba Kingdom was held by the Paramount Ruler, who was the supreme ruler of the Yoruba Kingdom and had the final say in matters of law and justice.

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Indirect rule was successfully practiced before it was introduced to Africa in India. The British colonial government in India used indirect rule to maintain control over the country. Under this system, the British government relied on local rulers or elites to govern on their behalf, rather than directly ruling the country themselves. The British government would support and empower local rulers or elites, providing them with authority and resources to govern their respective regions. This approach was seen as a more cost-effective and less intrusive way of maintaining control over large and diverse territories. The success of indirect rule in India led the British to introduce it in other parts of their empire, including Africa.

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The important reason for granting the Judiciary the power of Judicial Review is to uphold the supremacy of the Constitution. Judicial Review is the power of the courts to review and invalidate laws or government actions that are deemed unconstitutional. By upholding the supremacy of the Constitution, the Judiciary ensures that the Constitution is the highest law of the land and that all laws and actions must be in line with its provisions. Granting the Judiciary the power of Judicial Review also serves as a check on the power of the other branches of government, ensuring that they do not overstep their constitutional limits. This helps to promote the rule of law and prevent the abuse of power by those in authority. Furthermore, Judicial Review is an essential element of the separation of powers and the independence of the Judiciary. It allows the Judiciary to act as an independent arbiter and ensures that it is not beholden to any political or governmental interests. Therefore, granting the Judiciary the power of Judicial Review is vital for the protection of the Constitution, the promotion of the rule of law, and the independence of the Judiciary.

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For an Electoral Commission to conduct a free and fair election, it must be an impartial and independent body. This means that the Electoral Commission should not be controlled by the government or funded by only one of the political parties, but rather should operate independently and without bias towards any political party or candidate. The Electoral Commission should be responsible for ensuring that the election process is fair, transparent, and free from any form of manipulation or interference. It should have the authority to supervise and regulate the entire electoral process, including voter registration, candidate nomination, campaign finance, and vote counting. The commission should be headed by a competent and neutral individual, but not necessarily a Justice of the Supreme Court. Overall, the independence and impartiality of the Electoral Commission are essential for ensuring that the election results accurately reflect the will of the people and that the democratic process is upheld.

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A constitution of a federal system is usually written and rigid. In a federal system, there are two levels of government: the central/federal government and the state/regional governments. The constitution outlines the powers and responsibilities of each level of government, as well as the relationship between them. A written constitution means that the constitution is in a formal, written document that outlines the fundamental principles and laws of the federal system. A rigid constitution means that it can only be amended through a special process that is usually more difficult than the normal legislative process, which helps to maintain the balance of power between the different levels of government. Therefore, the constitution of a federal system is usually written and rigid to ensure that the powers of the federal and state governments are clearly defined, and to provide a stable and predictable legal framework for the citizens and governments of the federation.

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The process of transition from military to civilian rule involves several key steps to ensure a smooth transfer of power from the military government to a democratically elected civilian government. These steps typically include drafting a new constitution that defines the powers and functions of the new government, setting up a constituent assembly to draft and approve the new constitution, arranging and conducting elections to select new leaders, and finally, swearing in the new president and other elected officials. Of the options provided, appointment of ministers is not a process in the transition from military to civilian rule. While the appointment of ministers is an important step in forming a new civilian government, it typically occurs after the transition has already taken place, as ministers are selected by the new president or prime minister once they are in office.

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Revenue allocation is the principle for sharing the wealth of the nation among the different levels of government. This is the process of distributing the revenue generated by the central government to the state and local governments. The revenue allocation formula is usually determined by a federal government committee which takes into account factors such as population, land mass, internally generated revenue, and other criteria. The objective of revenue allocation is to ensure that each level of government has the resources it needs to provide services and improve the well-being of its citizens.

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The political parties that formed the opposition in the House of Representatives during the First Republic in Nigeria were the Action Group (AG) and the United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC). The First Republic was a period of parliamentary democracy in Nigeria, which lasted from 1960 to 1966. During this time, the AG and the UMBC were the two main opposition parties in the House of Representatives, challenging the ruling party, the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), and its coalition partner, the National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC). The AG was a primarily Yoruba party, while the UMBC represented the interests of minority groups in the central and southern regions of Nigeria. Together, they opposed the NPC's domination of the federal government and advocated for greater regional autonomy and the protection of minority rights.

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The international organization which has former British colonies as its member is the "Community of Nations," also known as the "Commonwealth of Nations." It is a political association of 54 member states, nearly all of which are former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth is committed to promoting democracy, human rights, and economic development across its member countries. Its activities are coordinated through the Commonwealth Secretariat, which is headquartered in London, England.

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The independence of the judiciary is crucial for the effective functioning of a democratic system. Judges are considered independent when they are free from external control and interference. This means that they are not subject to pressure or influence from the government or any other political or private entities. The independence of judges allows them to make decisions based on the law and the evidence presented in court, rather than on political or other considerations. Therefore, an independent judiciary is essential for protecting individual rights, ensuring the rule of law, and maintaining a fair and impartial legal system.

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Impeachment as an instrument of check on the Executive is useful mainly in a presidential system. In a presidential system, the President is both the Head of State and Head of Government. The President is elected directly by the people and exercises substantial power, which may lead to abuse of power. Impeachment provides a mechanism for the legislature to hold the President accountable for any wrongdoing, such as gross misconduct, abuse of power, or violation of the law. The process involves the initiation of charges by the House of Representatives and a trial in the Senate, with removal from office as the ultimate penalty if the charges are proven. The use of impeachment as a check on the Executive is less applicable in other systems of government, such as the unitary system, where power is centralized in the hands of a single executive, and the cabinet system, where the executive power is exercised collectively by the cabinet.

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A participatory political culture is one in which individuals are interested in voting and contesting elections. In such a culture, citizens actively participate in the political process and engage with their government. They are encouraged to vote and have a say in the political decisions that affect their lives. This kind of political culture fosters democracy, transparency, and accountability, and it is generally seen as desirable for a healthy and functional society.

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An electoral college refers to a medium of indirect election. In this system, rather than the citizens directly electing their leaders, they elect representatives who then cast their votes on behalf of the citizens. These representatives are known as electors, and their votes collectively determine the outcome of the election. The electoral college system is used in some countries, including the United States, to elect their presidents.

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A bye-election is conducted when some vacant seats exist in Parliament. A bye-election is a special election held to fill a seat in Parliament that has become vacant between general elections. The vacancy may arise due to the death, resignation, or disqualification of a sitting Member of Parliament, or in some cases, the expulsion of a Member of Parliament. The bye-election is held in the specific constituency or riding where the vacancy has occurred, and voters in that constituency are given the opportunity to elect a new representative to fill the vacant seat.

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Nigeria is a member of several international organizations, including the OAU, UNO, OPEC, and ECOWAS. However, Nigeria is not a member of NATO, which is primarily a military alliance of North American and European countries for collective defense purposes.

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An alien can become a legal member of a state by going through a process known as naturalization. Naturalization is the legal process by which a non-citizen becomes a citizen of a particular country. This process typically involves meeting certain requirements, such as living in the country for a specified period of time, passing a language and/or civics test, and demonstrating a commitment to the values and principles of the country. Once an alien has successfully completed the naturalization process, they are granted the same rights and privileges as native-born citizens, including the right to vote and hold public office. However, naturalization is not the only way for an alien to become a legal member of a state. Depending on the laws of the country in question, aliens may also be able to become legal members through migration, employment, socialization, or conversion to the predominant religion of the state.

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The Organization which has mainly economic matters as its objectives is the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). OPEC is an intergovernmental organization founded in 1960, which consists of 14 member countries that are primarily oil-producing nations. The main objective of OPEC is to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers and a regular supply for consumers. OPEC seeks to promote international cooperation in the petroleum industry, to ensure that petroleum resources are managed in a sustainable manner, and to contribute to the economic growth and development of its member countries. OPEC is primarily concerned with economic matters related to the petroleum industry and is not a general-purpose international organization like the United Nations Organization or the League of Nations.

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The Nigerian civil war, fought between the Federal Government and the secessionist Republic of Biafra from 1967 to 1970, had both positive and negative consequences.

Positive consequences

1. Preservation of national unity: The war ended in the defeat of secession and the reintegration of the Eastern Region, keeping Nigeria one indivisible country.
2. Policy of reconciliation (no victor, no vanquished): The Federal Government adopted a policy of reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction which helped to reintegrate the Igbo and heal wounds.
3. Creation of states: The creation of twelve states in 1967 weakened the power of the old regions, calmed minority fears and brought government closer to the people.
4. Growth of the armed forces and national institutions: The war led to the expansion, modernisation and strengthening of the Nigerian military and other national institutions.
5. Rise of Nigeria's stature in Africa: Surviving the war and later using its oil wealth, Nigeria emerged as a respected power committed to African liberation and unity.
6. Boost to local industry and self-reliance: The blockade forced ingenuity and encouraged local production and technological improvisation, especially on the Biafran side.

Negative consequences

1. Loss of lives: Over a million people died from fighting, starvation and disease, especially children, in a great humanitarian tragedy.
2. Destruction of property and infrastructure: Homes, roads, bridges, schools, hospitals and industries were destroyed, especially in the war zones.
3. Economic dislocation: The war drained huge resources, disrupted the economy, caused inflation and diverted funds from development.
4. Bitterness, mistrust and disunity: It left behind deep ethnic suspicion, feelings of marginalisation and a legacy of distrust that still affects national politics.
5. Displacement and refugee crisis: Millions were rendered homeless refugees, and many families were broken up.
6. Entrenchment of the military in politics: The war strengthened the role and influence of the military, prolonging military rule.

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Why the development of nationalist activities was slow in the French West African colonies

1. The policy of assimilation: France sought to turn the Africans into black Frenchmen who would see themselves as French citizens rather than a distinct people; this weakened the sense of separate identity and the urge to demand independence.
2. Representation in the French Parliament: Selected Africans, especially the assimilated elite, were allowed to sit as deputies in the French National Assembly in Paris, which gave them a stake in the French system and reduced agitation for self-rule.
3. The policy of association and direct rule: France governed its colonies as overseas territories tied closely to France and administered them directly, suppressing local initiative and leaving little room for independent political organisation.
4. Harsh and repressive administration: The French used forced labour, the indigenat (arbitrary punishment code) and strict controls that intimidated the people and discouraged open political protest.
5. Limited Western education: Fewer people received the kind of Western education that produced a large, radical, politically conscious elite, so there were fewer educated nationalists to lead the struggle.
6. Economic dependence on France: The colonies were economically tied to and dependent on France for trade, aid and a common currency, which made many reluctant to break away.
7. Restrictions on the press and political parties: Tight control over newspapers and political associations limited the spread of nationalist ideas and the mobilisation of the people.

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Why some countries adopt written constitutions

A written constitution is one whose fundamental principles and rules of government are contained in a single, formal, documentary form. Countries adopt written constitutions for the following reasons:

1. Certainty and clarity: A written document sets out the powers, duties and limits of government clearly, so that there is little room for doubt or dispute over what the law of the constitution is.
2. Protection of fundamental rights: Writing down the constitution enables the basic rights and liberties of citizens to be entrenched and guaranteed against violation by the government.
3. Suitability for federations: In a federal state a written constitution is necessary to share powers clearly between the central and the component units and to prevent conflict between them.
4. Check on arbitrary government: By spelling out the limits of authority, a written constitution restrains rulers from abusing power and makes them govern within defined bounds.
5. Stability and permanence: Because it is usually rigid and difficult to amend, a written constitution provides a stable and enduring framework of government that cannot be changed on a whim.
6. Reference point and settling of disputes: It serves as a supreme reference document to which the courts and citizens can turn to resolve constitutional disputes.
7. Guarantee against a return to bad rule: Newly independent or post-crisis states adopt it to guard against dictatorship and to guide the conduct of government.

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Nigeria has consistently made Africa the centrepiece of its foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with other African states in the following ways:

1. Active membership of African organisations: Nigeria is a leading and founding member of the African Union (formerly OAU) and ECOWAS, using these bodies to promote cooperation, unity and good relations with other African states.
2. Financial and material assistance: Nigeria gives economic aid, grants, loans and relief materials to needy African countries, and established the Nigerian Trust Fund and the Technical Aid Corps to assist other African nations.
3. Peacekeeping and conflict resolution: Nigeria contributes troops and resources to peacekeeping operations, notably leading ECOMOG interventions in Liberia and Sierra Leone, and mediating in disputes among African states.
4. Support for liberation movements and anti-apartheid struggle: Nigeria gave moral, material and diplomatic support to freedom fighters in Southern Africa and was a frontline campaigner against apartheid in South Africa.
5. Exchange of diplomatic representatives: Nigeria establishes and maintains embassies and high commissions in other African capitals, promoting dialogue and cooperation.
6. Provision of technical manpower and scholarships: Through the Technical Aid Corps, Nigeria sends doctors, teachers and other professionals to serve in other African countries, and offers scholarships to African students.
7. Signing of treaties and bilateral agreements: Nigeria enters into agreements on trade, culture and security with fellow African states to strengthen ties.
8. Non-interference and respect for sovereignty: Nigeria respects the territorial integrity and independence of other African states and settles disputes peacefully.
9. Economic and trade cooperation: Nigeria promotes cross-border trade and joint development projects with neighbours and other African partners.

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Reasons for the creation of local governments in Nigeria

1. To bring government nearer to the people: Local governments were created so that government and its services could reach the grassroots and the rural populace who are far from the state and federal capitals.
2. To promote grassroots participation: They give ordinary citizens the opportunity to take part in the affairs of their own communities and in the process of governance.
3. To ensure even and rapid development: Local councils were established to spread development to all parts of the country and to provide basic amenities such as roads, markets, water and health facilities at the local level.
4. To relieve the central and state governments: They take over the provision of purely local services, thereby reducing the burden on the higher levels of government and allowing them to concentrate on wider matters.
5. To serve as training grounds for leadership: Local governments help to train and produce future political leaders and administrators by giving them experience at the grassroots.
6. To provide effective and efficient administration: Because they understand local needs and conditions, local councils can administer their areas and respond to local problems more efficiently than a distant central authority.
7. To act as a link between the people and the higher governments: They serve as a channel through which the needs of the people are conveyed to, and the policies of government are carried down to, the local communities.

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Causes of the 1953 Kano riot

The Kano riot of May 1953 broke out following the political crisis over the motion for self-government in 1956.

1. The self-government motion of 1953: Anthony Enahoro of the Action Group moved a motion in the House of Representatives for self-government in 1956, which the Northern members opposed and amended, deepening North-South division.
2. Walk-out and insult of Northern leaders: Northern representatives were jeered at and abused by Southern crowds in Lagos when they opposed the motion, which angered the North.
3. The Southern parties' tour of the North: The Action Group and the NCNC planned to carry their campaign for self-government into Kano, which the Northerners resented as provocation on their soil.
4. North-South mutual suspicion: Deep-seated distrust, cultural and religious differences and fear of Southern domination provided the tense atmosphere in which the riot erupted.
5. Economic rivalry: Jealousy and competition between Northern and Southern (mainly Igbo) traders and residents in Kano's Sabon Gari sharpened the tension.

Implications of the riot

1. It led to loss of many lives and destruction of property in Kano.
2. It widened and hardened the division and bitterness between the North and the South.
3. It convinced the North of the need to protect its interests, strengthening demands for a federal structure and regional autonomy.
4. It hastened the constitutional conferences in London and Lagos (1953 and 1954) and the adoption of the federal Lyttelton Constitution of 1954.
5. It sowed early seeds of ethnic and regional distrust that troubled Nigerian politics thereafter.

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(a) Meaning of a confederation

A confederation is a loose union of independent and sovereign states which come together, usually by treaty or agreement, to form a central authority for the purpose of pursuing common goals such as defence, trade or foreign relations. In a confederation the component states retain their sovereignty and delegate only limited powers to the weak central body, and each state reserves the right to secede from the union at will. Examples include the old Senegambia Confederation and the early United States under the Articles of Confederation.

(b) Problems likely to arise in a confederal state

1. Weak central government: Because most powers remain with the component states, the central authority is too weak to enforce its decisions or provide effective leadership.
2. Threat of secession and disintegration: Since each unit retains the right to withdraw, the union is unstable and constantly threatened with break-up.
3. Difficulty in decision-making: Important decisions often require the consent of all or most of the units, which makes the process slow and cumbersome.
4. Lack of uniformity: Differences in laws, policies, currencies and standards among the units create confusion and hamper cooperation.
5. Rivalry and disunity among the units: Individual states may pursue selfish interests, leading to distrust, conflict and lack of common purpose.
6. Financial weakness: The central body depends on contributions from the units, which may be irregular or inadequate, leaving it poorly funded and ineffective.

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(a) Definition of public opinion

Public opinion is the collective view, belief or feeling held and expressed by a substantial or dominant section of the people in a community on an issue of common concern at a given time. It is not necessarily the opinion of every individual, but the prevailing or preponderant opinion of the people on a matter of public interest to which government is expected to pay attention.

(b) Characteristics of public opinion

1. It is collective: It is the shared opinion of a large group or the majority of the people, not the private view of a single individual.
2. It is on a public issue: It relates to matters of general or common interest to the community, such as government policy, rather than purely personal affairs.
3. It is dynamic and changeable: Public opinion is not fixed; it shifts from time to time with new information, events and circumstances.
4. It is expressed: To be effective it must be openly made known through such means as the press, elections, protests, opinion polls and public debate.
5. It is rational and reasoned: Genuine public opinion is based on reflection and reasoning on an issue rather than on mere impulse.
6. It influences government: A well-formed public opinion carries weight and tends to guide or compel the government to act in a particular way.

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Why it is necessary to uphold the principle of the Rule of Law in a state

The rule of law means the supremacy of the law over all persons, so that everybody, whether ruler or ruled, is equal before and subject to the same law. It is necessary to uphold it for the following reasons:

1. It guarantees equality before the law: Upholding it ensures that all citizens, regardless of status, wealth or office, are treated equally and are subject to the same laws and courts.
2. It protects the fundamental rights of citizens: The rule of law safeguards the liberty, property and other basic rights of the individual against arbitrary interference by the government or by fellow citizens.
3. It checks dictatorship and abuse of power: By binding rulers to the law, it prevents the arbitrary and tyrannical use of power and compels the government to act only within the limits set by law.
4. It ensures fair hearing and justice: It guarantees that no person is punished except for a breach of law proved before an ordinary court, and that everyone is presumed innocent until proven guilty and given a fair trial.
5. It promotes peace, order and stability: Where the law is supreme and impartially enforced, citizens have confidence in the system, disputes are settled lawfully, and orderly and stable government is assured.
6. It encourages good governance and accountability: Leaders are made accountable for their actions and are compelled to govern justly, which strengthens public confidence and attracts investment and development.

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Despite their undemocratic origins, the various military governments that ruled Nigeria between 1966 and 1999 recorded a number of achievements. These include:

1. Preservation of national unity: The military kept Nigeria one by successfully prosecuting the civil war (1967 to 1970) and defeating secession, then pursuing reconciliation.
2. Creation of states and local governments: Successive military regimes created states (from 4 regions to 36 states) and local government councils, bringing government closer to the people and calming minority fears.
3. Reform of the local government system: The 1976 Local Government Reform by the Murtala/Obasanjo regime standardised local government as a uniform third tier of government throughout the country.
4. Development of infrastructure: The military built roads, bridges, ports, airports, refineries, universities and other infrastructure, aided by the oil boom.
5. Relocation of the federal capital: They established and moved the federal capital from Lagos to a central, more neutral location at Abuja.
6. Introduction of national programmes: Programmes such as Operation Feed the Nation, the Green Revolution, Universal Primary Education, the War Against Indiscipline and the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) were introduced to promote development and national integration.
7. Return to civilian rule: The military twice organised transition programmes that handed over power to elected civilians (1979 and 1999), restoring democracy.
8. Active foreign policy and pan-Africanism: They championed African liberation, the anti-apartheid struggle, and the formation of ECOWAS in 1975.
9. Indigenisation of the economy: Decrees were promulgated to transfer ownership of certain businesses to Nigerians, promoting economic nationalism.