WAEC SSCE - Government - 1989

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The two parties that formed the coalition government in 1959 were the Northern People's Congress (NPC) and the National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC). After Nigeria gained independence from Britain in 1960, the country was governed by a coalition government made up of several political parties. The NPC and the NCNC were the two largest parties in the country at the time, and they formed a coalition government with the goal of working together to promote the interests of all Nigerians. The NPC was a predominantly Northern party that drew its support from the Muslim population in the region, while the NCNC was a predominantly Southern party that drew its support from the Igbo population in the East. Despite their regional and religious differences, the two parties were able to come together and form a coalition government that lasted until 1964. During their time in power, the NPC and NCNC government implemented a number of policies aimed at promoting economic growth and development, as well as addressing issues of regional and ethnic tensions. However, the coalition government eventually fell apart due to disagreements between the two parties, which led to the formation of a new government led by the NPC.

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The responsibility that is not assigned to the Electoral Commission in Nigeria is the swearing-in of members of the House of Assembly. The Electoral Commission in Nigeria is responsible for ensuring that elections are free, fair, and credible. Their responsibilities include the compilation of the electoral register, delimitation of constituencies, supervision of polling, and counting of votes. They are also responsible for the announcement and publication of election results. However, the swearing-in of members of the House of Assembly is not within the purview of the Electoral Commission. This responsibility is usually carried out by the Clerk of the House of Assembly, who administers the oath of office to the newly elected members before they take up their positions.

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The United Nations Security Council is the organ of the UN that has the power to impose mandatory sanctions on any of its member countries. The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security and has the authority to take actions such as imposing sanctions, authorizing military interventions, and establishing peacekeeping missions. When the Security Council determines that a country's actions threaten international peace and security, it can adopt resolutions that impose economic or other types of sanctions on that country. These sanctions may include restrictions on trade, travel, and other activities, and are designed to pressure the targeted country to change its behavior. Overall, the ability of the Security Council to impose mandatory sanctions is an important tool in maintaining international peace and security and promoting the goals of the United Nations.

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The major advantage of the secret ballot is that it ensures the anonymity of each voter. This means that when a voter casts their ballot, nobody else can see who they voted for. This helps to prevent voter intimidation and allows people to vote freely without fear of retribution. It also helps to prevent vote buying and selling, as there is no way to prove who someone voted for. Overall, the secret ballot is an important tool for ensuring the integrity of democratic elections.

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The title among the Igbos in the pre-colonial era that required substantial wealth before one could acquire it is the "Ozo" title. This title was one of the highest titles in the Igbo society, and it was reserved for men of great wealth and achievement. To be eligible for the title, a man had to have a certain amount of wealth, including a large number of yams and livestock, as well as a successful trading career. Additionally, he had to meet certain moral and social requirements and undergo a series of rituals and ceremonies to be initiated into the title.

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Akọwa Nkọwa

The correct answer is "disenfranchisement". Disenfranchisement is the process of taking away a person's right to vote. This can happen for various reasons, such as being convicted of a felony, not meeting certain residency or citizenship requirements, or not being registered to vote. Disenfranchisement can have significant consequences for individuals and communities, as it can limit their ability to participate in the democratic process and have a say in the decisions that affect their lives.

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A fascist regime is authoritarian. It is characterized by a centralized government headed by a dictator who exercises absolute power and controls all aspects of society. The government is usually militaristic and nationalist, and places the interests of the state above individual liberties and rights. In a fascist regime, there is often a strong emphasis on maintaining order and unity, and dissent is suppressed through censorship, propaganda, and violence.

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A sovereign state is an independent political entity that has supreme authority over its own affairs within its territorial boundaries. This means that the state is free to govern itself without interference from other countries or external forces. The state's government is responsible for making decisions regarding its own internal and external affairs, and its citizens are expected to follow its laws and policies. Sovereignty is not invested in the military, but in the government, which is responsible for protecting the state and its citizens. A sovereign state's constitution may be changed by its own government or by its citizens through a democratic process, and citizens are expected to take responsibility for their actions. Therefore, is the correct answer.

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Nigeria used to have strained diplomatic relations with South Africa due to the latter's apartheid policy. Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation that existed in South Africa from 1948 to the early 1990s. Many African countries, including Nigeria, were opposed to apartheid and supported the anti-apartheid movement. As a result, Nigeria was one of the countries that imposed economic and diplomatic sanctions on South Africa to pressure it to end apartheid. Although apartheid officially ended in 1994, it took some time for the two countries to fully normalize their diplomatic relations.

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When there is a conflict between the regional and federal laws under the concurrent legislative list, the federal laws would prevail. This means that the federal government's laws would be applied in the situation, even if they contradict the regional government's laws. This is because, in Nigeria's federal system, the federal government has more power than the regional governments. The Constitution recognizes the supremacy of federal laws over state laws, and the Supreme Court has the final say in disputes between the two levels of government.

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The component of political culture that is not listed among the options is "Age". Political culture refers to the attitudes, beliefs, and societal values that shape the political behavior of individuals within a particular society. Emotions can also play a role in political culture, but they are not always considered a primary component. Age, on the other hand, is not a component of political culture. While age can be a factor in political behavior, it is not a defining characteristic of political culture. Political culture is more about the collective beliefs and values of a society, rather than the individual characteristics of its members.

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The principle of anonymity of civil servants means that they are not credited or blamed for anything they do while carrying out their duties as civil servants. Civil servants are individuals who work for the government in non-elected positions. The principle of anonymity is an important aspect of the civil service system in many countries. It means that civil servants are not recognized as individuals, but rather as agents of the government. This principle ensures that civil servants are not credited or blamed for any actions they take while performing their duties. Instead, credit or blame is given to the government, which is seen as responsible for the actions of its civil servants. This principle also helps to ensure that civil servants are impartial in their work and that they are not influenced by personal biases or political affiliations. They are expected to carry out their duties in a professional and unbiased manner, regardless of their personal opinions or beliefs. Overall, the principle of anonymity helps to maintain the integrity of the civil service and ensures that civil servants are accountable to the government and the people they serve, rather than to any particular individual or political party.

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Nigeria broke diplomatic relations with France in 1963 for exploding a nuclear device in the Sahara. France conducted a series of nuclear tests in the Algerian Sahara between 1960 and 1966, which were strongly opposed by the Algerian government and other African nations, including Nigeria. Nigeria's Prime Minister at the time, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, condemned the tests as a threat to the security and well-being of the African continent. In protest, Nigeria severed diplomatic relations with France and played an active role in the campaign against nuclear testing in the Sahara. Nigeria's stance, along with the efforts of other African nations, eventually led to the end of French nuclear testing in the Sahara in 1966.

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France does not operate a federal constitution. France is a unitary state with a centralized government system where power is concentrated at the national level. In a unitary system, subnational governments, if they exist, derive their powers from the central government, whereas in a federal system, power is divided between the national government and subnational governments. The United States, Canada, Nigeria, and Switzerland are examples of countries that operate federal constitutions.

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The primary function of a legislature is to make laws. A legislature is a branch of government that is responsible for creating and passing laws. The members of the legislature, who are usually elected by the people, are tasked with representing the interests of their constituents and creating laws that serve the public good. In order to create laws, the legislature must first introduce bills, which are proposed laws that outline specific policies or changes to existing laws. These bills are then debated and discussed by the members of the legislature, who can propose amendments or revisions to the bill. Once the bill has been debated and revised, it is voted on by the members of the legislature. If the bill receives enough votes, it is passed and becomes law. This process of creating and passing laws is the primary function of a legislature. While a legislature may have other functions, such as monitoring the judiciary or re-assigning civil servants, these are secondary functions that are usually related to the primary function of making laws.

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Government is the machinery establish to manage the affairs of the state. In this context, the state refers to the entire community of people who live within a defined territory and are subject to a particular system of government. The role of the government is to provide services and make decisions that affect the welfare of the citizens, such as providing healthcare, education, infrastructure, and security. The government is also responsible for upholding the laws of the state and ensuring that they are enforced fairly and justly.

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Socialism developed as a protest against the evils of capitalism. Capitalism is an economic system where the means of production are privately owned, and goods and services are produced for profit. Socialists argue that capitalism creates an unequal distribution of wealth, with the wealthy owning the means of production and exploiting the working class. Socialism proposes an alternative economic system where the means of production are owned by the state or the community, and goods and services are distributed based on need rather than profit. Socialists believe that this will lead to a more equal and just society, free from the exploitation and inequality inherent in capitalism.

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The principle of separation of powers implies that the three main organs of government, namely the executive, legislature, and judiciary, work independently but cooperatively. Each organ has its own distinct functions and responsibilities, and they are designed to check and balance each other to prevent any one organ from having too much power or influence over the others. Therefore, they work in cooperation with one another, while still maintaining their independence and performing their respective roles in the interest of the nation.

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Capitalism is an economic system that encourages private ownership of the means of production. In capitalism, individuals and businesses have the freedom to own and operate their own enterprises, make their own production and distribution decisions, and compete in the market for goods and services. This system encourages competition, innovation, and efficiency, as businesses seek to maximize profits and consumers seek the best quality goods and services at the lowest prices. While capitalism does not necessarily preclude the concentration of wealth or power in the hands of a few, it does not inherently promote such concentration, as individuals and businesses must compete with one another in the market. It is worth noting that some individuals and societies may view capitalism as problematic or unjust for various reasons, such as its potential to exacerbate economic inequality or prioritize profits over social and environmental concerns.

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Citizens who are legally qualified to vote are referred to as the electorate. This means that they have met the legal requirements to participate in the electoral process, such as being of a certain age, being a citizen of the country, and being registered to vote. The electorate is responsible for choosing representatives to serve in government through the electoral process, which includes voting in elections. The other options listed, such as political parties, Trade Union Congress, Members of the House of Assembly, and a ward, are not equivalent to the electorate.

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A parliamentary-cabinet system of government is practiced in Canada. In a parliamentary-cabinet system of government, the executive branch of government (the Cabinet) is made up of members of the legislature (parliament). The leader of the party with the most seats in parliament becomes the Prime Minister, and they appoint other members of parliament to the Cabinet. The Cabinet is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the government, and they are accountable to parliament. The Prime Minister and Cabinet members can be removed from office by a vote of no confidence in parliament. Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy. It has a bicameral parliament made up of the House of Commons and the Senate. The leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Commons becomes the Prime Minister and forms the Cabinet. The parliamentary-cabinet system of government in Canada is similar to that of other Commonwealth countries, such as the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. It differs from the presidential system of government practiced in the United States, where the President is both the head of state and head of government, and is elected separately from the legislature.

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The head of the Oyomesi in the old Oyo Empire was the Bashorun. The Oyomesi was a council of chiefs that advised the king (Oba) in the Oyo Empire. The Bashorun was the leader of this council and was responsible for overseeing its activities. He was considered the second most powerful person in the empire after the king and had the authority to depose the king if necessary. The Bashorun was also responsible for leading the army and maintaining law and order in the empire.

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The judicial organ of government is responsible for interpreting the law. This means that they explain what the law means and how it should be applied in different situations. They do not make or implement the law, nor do they punish or reward lawmakers. Instead, they act as an independent body to ensure that the law is upheld and that justice is served. When there are disputes or conflicts that involve the law, it is the role of the judicial organ to review the evidence, hear arguments from both sides, and make a fair and impartial decision based on the law and the facts of the case.

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According to Marxist theory, the group of people who own and control the means of production in a capitalist society are known as the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie are the wealthy class who own factories, land, and other means of production, and they derive their power from the fact that they control the economy. Marxists argue that the bourgeoisie exploits the working class by paying them low wages and keeping them in a state of poverty, while extracting surplus value from their labor. This exploitation, according to Marxists, is inherent in the capitalist system, and can only be overcome through a revolutionary overthrow of the bourgeoisie by the working class.

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The head of state under the independence constitution of Nigeria was a constitutional monarch. A constitutional monarch is a form of government where a monarch acts as a non-party political head of state within the boundaries of a constitution, whether written or unwritten. The monarch's role is generally ceremonial, symbolic, and represents the unity and continuity of the state. In the case of Nigeria, the Queen of England was the constitutional monarch, representing Nigeria's former colonial power.

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Voting started in Nigeria in 1923 because the Clifford Constitution of 1922 granted an elective principle. This means that for the first time, Nigerians were given the right to elect representatives to the legislative council. Before the Clifford Constitution, the legislative council was made up of colonial officials and appointed Nigerian chiefs. The elective principle allowed for some level of representation and participation in the governance of the country. The first election held under this constitution was in 1923, and it was only open to a limited number of people - wealthy and educated men who met certain property and education qualifications. Over time, the right to vote was expanded to include more people, culminating in universal adult suffrage in 1979.

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One of the first actions of military governments when they take over power in Nigeria is to suspend the constitution. Military takeovers, also known as coups, are characterized by the use of force to overthrow a democratically elected government. Once in power, the military usually suspends the constitution, dissolves the legislature and judiciary, and assumes all executive and legislative powers. This allows them to govern by decree, without the need for approval from any other branch of government or the general public. The suspension of the constitution is often seen as a major infringement on the democratic process and the rule of law. It is also typically followed by other actions such as the detention of political figures, the appointment of new officials and the reorganization of the government bureaucracy.

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In a federal system of government, power is shared between a central government and constituent units such as states or regions. Each of these units is supposed to have some level of autonomy and influence in the governance of the country. However, in the First Republic of Nigeria, the northern region had a predominant influence over the other regions. This violated the federal principle of local autonomy, which means that each region should have been able to govern itself and make its own decisions without undue influence from other regions. The northern region was able to exert this influence because it had a larger population than the other regions, and its political leaders were able to form alliances with leaders from other regions. This violated the federal principle of absence of marked equalities among the component units because the northern region was able to dominate the others. The result was that the other regions felt marginalized and unable to exercise their own autonomy. This undermined effective cooperation among the constituent units and unity, which are also important federal principles. The violation of the federal principle of local autonomy was a major factor in the political instability that eventually led to the collapse of the First Republic.

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Sierra Leone did not formally recognize Biafra as an independent state.

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The first political party in Nigeria was formed after the introduction of the Clifford Constitution. The Clifford Constitution was introduced in 1922 by the British colonial government and it marked the beginning of constitutional reforms in Nigeria. The constitution created elective positions in the legislative council and allowed some Nigerians to participate in the government. However, it also limited the powers of Nigerians in the legislative council and gave the colonial governor ultimate power. The introduction of the Clifford Constitution sparked a movement for independence and led to the formation of the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), the first political party in Nigeria, in 1923.

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In the pre-colonial Fulani Empire, the ratification of the appointment and dismissal of an Emir was done by the Emirs of Gwandu and Sokoto. The Fulani Empire was a pre-colonial West African state that was formed by the Fulani people. The Emirs of Gwandu and Sokoto were two of the most powerful Emirs in the Fulani Empire. They were responsible for the appointment and dismissal of Emirs in the various Emirates within the empire. When a new Emir was appointed, the Emirs of Gwandu and Sokoto would be notified, and they would have to give their approval before the appointment could be confirmed. Similarly, when an Emir was dismissed, the Emirs of Gwandu and Sokoto would have to ratify the decision before it could be carried out. This system of ratification helped to ensure that the Emirs within the Fulani Empire were held accountable to a higher authority and that their actions were in line with the wishes of the ruling class.

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The independence constitution of 1960 was the constitution that granted independence to Nigeria from British colonial rule. It was the supreme law of the country at the time and provided for the framework for the governance of the country. The Constitution included various provisions that outlined the powers and functions of the government, as well as the rights and freedoms of the citizens. To answer the question, it is necessary to know which of the options was not included in the independence constitution of 1960. The options are: - Fundamental human rights - Executive powers - Concurrent list - Role of political parties - Legislative power Of these options, all except "Role of political parties" are specifically mentioned in the independence constitution of 1960. The role of political parties was not explicitly stated in the Constitution. Therefore, the answer is "Role of political parties."

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When a political party wants to choose a candidate to represent them in an upcoming election, they may hold an internal process called a primary. During a primary, members of the same political party compete against each other to earn the nomination of their party. Once a party's candidate is chosen, they may select a running mate, or someone who will run for office alongside them. The running mate is typically chosen to balance out the candidate's weaknesses and strengthen the party's chances of winning. If no candidate receives a majority of the votes during the primary, a second ballot may be held to narrow down the field of candidates. A party convention is another way for a political party to choose its candidate for an upcoming election. During a convention, party members from across the country gather to officially nominate their candidate and adopt a party platform. Finally, after the general election is held, electoral colleges meet to formally elect the President and Vice President of the United States.

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Cameroon is not a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). ECOWAS is a regional economic union consisting of fifteen West African countries, including Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, and Ivory Coast. Cameroon, although located in West Africa, is not a member of ECOWAS but is instead a member of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC).

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The twelve state structure was created in Nigeria in 1967. It was created by the then military government of Nigeria, headed by General Yakubu Gowon, in response to the demands of various ethnic groups in the country for more equitable distribution of resources and power. Prior to this, Nigeria was divided into four regions, which were seen as favoring the larger ethnic groups in the country. The creation of 12 states was aimed at giving more representation and autonomy to the smaller ethnic groups, and also to promote national unity and development.

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The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria promotes unity in diversity. This means that it recognizes the diversity of the country in terms of its different ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups, and seeks to unify them under a single federal system of government. The constitution also ensures the protection of the rights and interests of minority ethnic groups, thereby preventing the dominance of one group over others. Additionally, the constitution establishes a federal system of government in which power is shared between the federal government and the state governments, thereby ensuring that governmental power is not concentrated at one level of government. The constitution also protects the interests of all citizens, not just the rich, and does not ensure the dominance of any one political party.

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Bicameralism refers to a system of government that has two legislative chambers or houses. A legislature is the branch of government that is responsible for making laws, and in a bicameral system, there are two chambers that work together to create and pass laws. Each chamber of the legislature is usually comprised of elected officials who represent different constituencies or regions within the country. The two chambers may have different functions, such as the upper chamber having more power or representing specific interests, but both chambers are involved in the legislative process. Bicameralism is used in many countries around the world, including the United States, Nigeria, and India. It is believed to provide a system of checks and balances within the government, as well as allowing for more representation of diverse interests and perspectives. In contrast to bicameralism, a unicameral system has only one legislative chamber or house. In such a system, the legislative process may be simpler and more efficient, but there may be concerns about representation and the potential for abuse of power.

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The international organization formed after the Second World War to guarantee international peace and security is the United Nations Organization. The UN was established in 1945 with the aim of promoting international cooperation, maintaining peace and security, and addressing global issues such as poverty, human rights violations, and environmental problems. The organization is composed of 193 member states and operates through various bodies such as the General Assembly, Security Council, International Court of Justice, and specialized agencies. The UN plays a crucial role in promoting dialogue and cooperation between nations, preventing conflicts, and providing humanitarian aid and development assistance to countries in need.

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The civil obligations of a citizen are responsibilities that are required by law and are necessary for the smooth functioning of society. These obligations include obedience to the law, payment of taxes, voting during elections, respect for the national flag and anthem, and others. However, freedom of conscience and religion is not a civil obligation of a citizen, but rather a fundamental right that is protected by law. This means that individuals have the right to practice their own religion or belief system without interference from the government or other individuals. While this right is important and should be respected, it is not considered a civil obligation because it is not something that citizens are required to do by law. Instead, it is a fundamental aspect of personal freedom and human rights.

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Political parties aim to form a government by contesting in elections, with the ultimate goal of gaining power and running the country. On the other hand, pressure groups are groups of individuals who share a common interest or goal and come together to influence government policies and decisions. Pressure groups seek to influence the government on a specific issue, such as environmental protection or human rights, by using tactics such as lobbying, demonstrations, and other forms of public pressure. Their goal is to influence government policies and decisions in favor of their cause, rather than to gain control of the government itself. Therefore, the correct answer is "influencing government decisions".

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The National Party of Nigeria is not a pressure group. A pressure group, also known as an interest group or lobby group, is an organization that seeks to influence government policies and decisions without seeking to directly participate in the electoral process. Pressure groups represent the interests of a specific section of society, such as farmers, teachers, or doctors, and seek to advance those interests through various means, including advocacy, lobbying, and public demonstrations. In contrast, political parties such as the National Party of Nigeria are organizations that seek to directly participate in the electoral process by fielding candidates for political office and competing for votes. Political parties represent a broader range of interests than pressure groups and seek to form a government that will implement their policies and agenda.

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The head of Nigerian Mission to the Commonwealth of Nations is a High Commissioner. A High Commissioner is a diplomatic representative of one Commonwealth government to another, equivalent in rank to an ambassador between two independent countries. The High Commissioner represents Nigeria's interests and fosters friendly relations with the other member states of the Commonwealth.

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Any type of restricted franchise is a violation of the principle of political equality. Political equality is a fundamental principle of democracy that holds that all citizens should have an equal voice in the decisions that affect their lives, regardless of their social status, wealth, race, or other characteristics. When a country restricts the right to vote or runs elections with unequal conditions for certain groups, it violates this principle of political equality. Restricted franchise can take different forms, such as denying the right to vote based on race, gender, age, or economic status. Overall, the principle of political equality is an essential component of democratic governance, and any restriction on the right to vote undermines this principle and weakens the legitimacy of the government.

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Meaning of a Federal State

A federal state is a state in which governmental powers are constitutionally divided and shared between a central (national) government and component units (states or regions), with each tier being coordinate and independent within its own sphere of authority, and with the whole arrangement guaranteed by a written and rigid constitution.

Problems usually associated with a federal system of government

1. Conflict over division of powers: Disputes frequently arise between the central and unit governments over their respective areas of jurisdiction, leading to friction.
2. Threat of secession: Component units may seek to break away from the union, endangering national unity, as happened in the Nigerian civil war.
3. Problem of revenue allocation: Sharing national revenue fairly among the tiers and units is difficult and a constant source of tension.
4. Expensive to operate: The duplication of legislative, executive and judicial institutions at both levels makes the system costly to run.
5. Ethnic and regional rivalry: Federalism can encourage sectionalism, ethnicity and unhealthy competition among the units.
6. Rigidity and delay: The rigid constitution and the need for consensus between tiers can make decision-making and reform slow and cumbersome.
7. Uneven development: Differences in resources among units may create disparities in the pace of development and breed grievances.
8. Overlapping of functions: The concurrent exercise of powers may cause confusion, duplication and inter-governmental conflict.

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Significance of the 1922 Clifford Constitution

1. Introduction of the elective principle: For the first time in Nigeria (and West Africa), the constitution introduced the elective principle, allowing a few Africans to be elected into the Legislative Council. This was its most important feature.
2. Limited African representation: It provided for four elected members - three for Lagos and one for Calabar - giving Africans, though few, a voice in the central legislature for the first time.
3. Franchise based on property: The right to vote was granted to adult males resident in Lagos or Calabar with an income of £100 per annum, thereby introducing a (restricted) franchise.
4. Stimulation of party politics: The elective principle encouraged the formation of political parties, notably Herbert Macaulay's Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923, which was formed to contest the elections.
5. Growth of the press and political awareness: It stimulated political activity, the growth of newspapers and the rise of nationalist consciousness.
6. Enlargement of the Legislative Council: It created a Legislative Council for the Colony and Southern Nigeria, though the North remained governed by proclamation.
7. A step towards later constitutional advance: It laid a foundation upon which subsequent constitutions (Richards, Macpherson, etc.) built greater African participation.

Its limitation was that it excluded the North from the Legislative Council and gave Africans only a small, advisory role dominated by official members.

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Reasons why citizens obey the laws of the state

1. Fear of punishment: Citizens obey the law to avoid sanctions such as fines, imprisonment or other penalties imposed on law-breakers.
2. Legitimacy of the government: Where the government came to power lawfully and is accepted as rightful, citizens feel a moral duty to obey its laws.
3. Protection of life and property: People obey the law because it guarantees their safety, protects their property and maintains order in society.
4. The laws are just and beneficial: When laws are seen to be fair, reasonable and made for the common good, citizens obey them willingly.
5. Habit and socialisation: Through upbringing, education and custom, obedience to the law becomes a habit and part of the people's way of life.
6. Patriotism and love of country: Loyal and patriotic citizens obey the law out of a sense of duty and devotion to their state.
7. Participation in law-making: Where citizens (through their elected representatives) take part in making the laws, they feel bound to obey what they themselves have made.
8. Religious and moral conviction: Many obey the law because it agrees with their religious teachings and moral beliefs about right conduct.

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The military came into Nigerian politics through the coup of 15 January 1966. The following factors account for this intervention:

1. Widespread political corruption: The reckless embezzlement and misuse of public funds by politicians of the First Republic disgusted the young officers, who claimed to intervene to sanitise the system.
2. Rigging of elections: The massive rigging of the 1964 federal election and the 1965 Western Region election destroyed public confidence in the democratic process.
3. Political instability and breakdown of law and order: The violence, arson and killings, especially the "wetie" disturbances in the Western Region, created near-anarchy that the army used to justify seizing power.
4. The census controversy: The disputed 1962/63 census figures deepened distrust and rivalry among the regions and helped to destabilise the polity.
5. Ethnic and regional rivalry: Bitter competition and mutual suspicion among the major ethnic groups made national governance almost impossible.
6. Weakness of democratic institutions: The fragile parliament, judiciary and electoral bodies could not check abuse of power, leaving a vacuum the military filled.
7. Nepotism and tribalism in public life: Favouritism in appointments and the allocation of resources bred resentment that the coup plotters cited as justification.

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Reasons for the increase in the powers of the Executive in recent years

1. Growth of state functions (welfare state): Modern governments now provide education, health, housing and social services. These enormous tasks are executed by the executive, thereby expanding its powers.
2. Complexity of modern problems: Issues such as the economy, technology and security are complex and technical, requiring the expertise, speed and specialised machinery of the executive rather than the slow legislature.
3. Delegated legislation: Because the legislature has no time to make detailed laws, it delegates law-making authority to the executive to fill in the details through rules and regulations, increasing executive power.
4. Emergencies and national security: Wars, disasters and emergencies demand quick and decisive action which only the executive can provide, and emergency powers enlarge its authority.
5. Control of the economy: Government planning, budgeting and regulation of economic life are carried out by the executive, greatly widening its influence.
6. Party discipline and control of the legislature: Where the executive controls a disciplined majority party in the legislature, it effectively dominates law-making.
7. Control of information and the bureaucracy: The executive commands the civil service, the armed forces and vast information, which strengthen its position over the other arms.
8. Rise of the mass media and personality of leaders: Modern communication focuses attention on the head of the executive, enhancing his prestige and power.

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Factors to be considered in drawing up a Constitution

1. History and past experience of the people: The historical background, previous constitutions and political experience of the society must guide the framers so as to avoid past mistakes.
2. The wishes and aspirations of the people: A constitution should reflect the desires, values and aspirations of the citizens if it is to command their acceptance and loyalty.
3. The system of government to be adopted: The framers must decide whether the state will be unitary or federal, presidential or parliamentary, and provide accordingly.
4. Cultural, ethnic and religious composition: The diversity of the society in terms of ethnic groups, languages and religions must be taken into account to ensure fairness and unity.
5. Fundamental human rights: Provisions guaranteeing the basic rights and freedoms of citizens should be entrenched to protect the individual.
6. Separation of powers and checks and balances: The powers of the legislature, executive and judiciary should be clearly defined and balanced to prevent tyranny.
7. Economic situation and resources: The level of economic development and available resources should be considered so that the constitution is workable and not too costly.
8. Method of amendment: A clear and appropriate procedure for amending the constitution should be provided so that it can be changed to meet future needs.
9. Sovereignty and the international environment: The position of the state in the world and its relations with other states may also be considered.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Development of the Action Group (A.G.)

1. Origin: The Action Group grew out of the Yoruba cultural organisation, the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), founded in 1948. It was transformed into a political party in 1951 by Chief Obafemi Awolowo and his associates in the run-up to the 1951 general elections.
2. Leadership: Its foremost leader was Chief Obafemi Awolowo, supported by men such as S. L. Akintola, Anthony Enahoro and Bode Thomas.
3. Base: Although it aimed at a national spread, its main stronghold was the Western Region, where it drew strong support from the Yoruba.
4. Objectives: It stood for the immediate self-government of Nigeria, the welfare of the people, and a federal structure that would protect the interests of the regions and minorities.
5. Achievements in government: The A.G. controlled the government of the Western Region from 1951. It introduced free primary education, free health services for children, and pioneering developments such as the first television station in Africa (WNTV) and the Cocoa House in Ibadan.
6. Role in the nationalist struggle: The party pressed vigorously for independence. In 1953 its member Anthony Enahoro moved the first motion for Nigeria's self-government.
7. Crisis and decline: A leadership struggle between Awolowo and Akintola in the early 1960s split the party, leading to the Western Region crisis, the treason trial and imprisonment of Awolowo, and the weakening of the party before the collapse of the First Republic in 1966.

(A candidate may alternatively trace the NCNC or the NPC; credit is given for any one party correctly developed.)

Akọwa Nkọwa

Importance of government as an institution of the state

Government is the machinery or institution through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out. Its importance includes the following:

1. Maintenance of law and order: Government makes and enforces laws, and through the police and courts it maintains peace, punishes offenders and protects life and property.
2. Protection of the state from external aggression: Through the armed forces, government defends the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the state against invasion.
3. Provision of social amenities and welfare: Government provides essential services such as roads, water, electricity, education and health facilities for the well-being of the citizens.
4. Promotion of economic development: It formulates and implements economic policies, regulates trade and industry, collects revenue and manages the economy for growth and prosperity.
5. Protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens: Government safeguards the fundamental human rights of the people and provides avenues for redress when rights are violated.
6. Settlement of disputes and administration of justice: Through the judiciary, government resolves conflicts between individuals and between citizens and the state.
7. Conduct of external relations: Government represents the state abroad, enters into treaties and promotes the interests of the state in the international community.
8. Regulation of the conduct of citizens: It sets standards of behaviour, controls the use of resources and organises society for orderly and harmonious living.

In sum, without government the state would collapse into anarchy; government is therefore indispensable for the survival, order and progress of the state.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The part played by chiefs in British colonial administration in Nigeria

Under the system of Indirect Rule, the British governed the people through their traditional rulers. The chiefs performed the following roles:

1. Local administration: Chiefs served as native authorities, ruling their people on behalf of the British and carrying out the day-to-day administration of their areas.
2. Maintenance of law and order: They kept the peace in their domains, controlled their subjects and reported disturbances to the colonial authorities.
3. Collection of taxes: Chiefs assessed and collected taxes and levies from their people and paid them into the native treasury for the colonial government.
4. Administration of justice: They presided over the native/customary courts, tried cases under customary law and settled disputes among their subjects.
5. Enforcement of colonial policies: Chiefs transmitted and enforced the orders, laws and directives of the British among the local people.
6. Provision of labour and recruitment: They supplied labour for public works such as road construction and, at times, recruited men for the army and for colonial projects.
7. Link between the people and the government: Chiefs acted as intermediaries, conveying the wishes of the colonial government to the people and the grievances of the people to the government.

Indirect rule worked well in the North with its established emirates, less well in the West, and poorly in the East where there were no strong centralised chiefs, leading to the unpopular imposition of "warrant chiefs".

Akọwa Nkọwa

The French policies of Assimilation and Association

Assimilation

Assimilation was the earlier French colonial policy which aimed at turning Africans into French men and women in language, culture, laws and thought. Under it, the colonies were regarded as part of France and their people, if suitably educated, could become French citizens.

• French language, culture, laws and customs were imposed on the colonies, and African traditions were suppressed.
• Africans who satisfied certain conditions (the evolues, e.g. in the Four Communes of Senegal) could become French citizens and even elect deputies to the French Parliament in Paris.
• The colonies were administered directly from France as overseas provinces, with a highly centralised system.
• It was based on the assumption of the cultural superiority of France and the equality of all who accepted French civilisation.

Association

Because full assimilation proved too costly, impracticable and resisted by both Africans and the French, it was largely replaced by the policy of Association.

• Under Association, Africans were allowed to retain some of their own institutions, customs and traditions rather than being turned wholly into French people.
• The Africans and the French were regarded as partners, but with France as the senior and dominant partner.
• The mass of Africans remained subjects (not citizens) governed under the harsh indigenat code, while only a few remained citizens.
• It was more flexible and practical than assimilation, though still directed towards serving French interests.

In sum, assimilation sought to make Africans French, while association sought cooperation between the French and Africans under French control.