WAEC SSCE - Government - 2001

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The first agent of political socialization is the family. This is because the family is the first social group a child encounters and it is where the child learns basic values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviors that shape their understanding of the world. In the family, children learn about their cultural heritage, family values, and norms, and how to interact with others in society. As such, the family plays a crucial role in shaping a child's political beliefs and values by introducing them to concepts like citizenship, democracy, and political participation.

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Apart from making laws, the legislature has the important function of checking the executive powers. In a democratic system, the legislature is responsible for ensuring that the executive branch of government does not abuse its power or overstep its bounds. To perform this function, the legislature has several tools at its disposal. It can conduct hearings and investigations to examine the actions of the executive branch and hold it accountable for any wrongdoing. It can also use its power of the purse to control the budget and prevent the executive from spending money in ways that are not authorized by law. In addition, the legislature has the power to impeach and remove members of the executive branch who have committed serious offenses or abuses of power. This power serves as a powerful check on the executive, ensuring that those who hold power are held accountable for their actions. Overall, the legislature plays a crucial role in checking the executive powers and ensuring that the government operates in the best interests of the people. By performing this important function, the legislature helps to maintain the balance of power between the different branches of government and ensures that democracy remains strong and vibrant.

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Nigeria's ideal of Africa as the centerpiece of her foreign policy does not include the support for Apartheid policy in South Africa. Nigeria was one of the leading African countries that opposed the Apartheid policy in South Africa, and even imposed economic sanctions on South Africa to end the policy. The other options, promoting African unity, creating more Nigerian missions in Africa, and settling disputes in Africa, are part of Nigeria's ideal of Africa as the centerpiece of her foreign policy. Nigeria's foreign policy towards Africa is based on the principle of Pan-Africanism, which seeks to promote the unity and development of Africa.

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Under the Nigeria Constitution of 1979, representation in the lower House, which is the House of Representatives, was based on the population of each state. This means that the number of representatives that a state had in the House of Representatives was determined by the population of the state. The higher the population of a state, the more representatives it had in the House of Representatives. This was aimed at ensuring that each state was well represented in the National Assembly based on the number of people living in the state.

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A minister controls public corporations by giving general policy directives. As a political head of a ministry, a minister is responsible for setting the overall policy direction for the public corporations that fall under his or her jurisdiction. The minister would work closely with the management of the public corporations to ensure that their operations are aligned with the policy objectives of the government. The minister may also oversee the appointment of the board of directors and top management of the public corporations, and would have the power to make changes if necessary. However, the minister is not expected to undertake day-to-day administration of the corporations or audit their accounts personally. Rather, those tasks are typically delegated to the management and board of directors of the public corporations.

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A disadvantage of centralized administration is that sub-national bodies are denied initiative in decision making. Centralized administration is a system of government where most of the decision-making power is held by a central authority, such as a federal government or a monarch. In this system, sub-national bodies such as local governments or state governments may have limited power to make decisions on behalf of their constituents. One of the drawbacks of this system is that sub-national bodies may not have the freedom to make decisions that are specific to their local needs and concerns. Instead, they may be required to follow the directives of the central authority, which may not always take into account the unique circumstances of each sub-national entity. This can result in policies that are not effective or appropriate for local conditions. Furthermore, denying sub-national bodies the initiative in decision making can lead to a lack of accountability and transparency in governance. Without the ability to make decisions on their own, local officials may be more likely to engage in corrupt practices or to serve the interests of the central authority rather than their constituents. This can ultimately lead to a loss of trust in government and a lack of support for the system of governance.

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The Security Council is an organ of the United Nations Organization (UNO). It is responsible for maintaining international peace and security by identifying threats to peace and resolving conflicts. The Security Council has 15 members, five of which are permanent (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and 10 are non-permanent members elected for two-year terms. The Security Council has the power to impose sanctions and authorize the use of force to maintain peace and security.

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In a federal state, a second chamber usually serves as a check on the power of the lower house, which represents the people. The second chamber may have different representation or powers than the lower house, and this helps to balance the interests of the various states or regions within the federation. Therefore, it can be said that the second chamber makes up for the imbalance in the representation in the lower house.

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After the annexation in 1861, Lagos became a crown colony. This means that it was a British colony directly controlled by the British government through a governor appointed by the Crown. The colony was not under the control of a chartered company or a private individual. The crown colony system was often used by the British government to govern territories that were considered too important or too dangerous to be left to a chartered company. As a crown colony, Lagos was governed by British laws and regulations, and the local population had little to no say in the governance of their own affairs. The system continued until Nigeria gained independence in 1960.

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Delegated legislation is a type of legislation that allows the government or other bodies to make laws without the direct involvement of parliament. One of the arguments against delegated legislation is that it goes against the principle of separation of powers. This principle states that the powers of government should be separated into three branches: the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. Each branch should have separate and distinct powers, and there should be a system of checks and balances to ensure that no one branch becomes too powerful. Delegated legislation allows the executive branch to make laws, which can encroach on the powers of the legislature and undermine the system of checks and balances. This can lead to an imbalance of power, with the executive branch becoming too dominant. Additionally, delegated legislation can be used to promote limited government, which means that the government has limited powers and should not interfere in the lives of citizens more than necessary. However, this can also mean that the government is not able to respond to changing circumstances or address important issues that require new laws. Finally, delegated legislation can be time-consuming and wasteful, as it requires the attention of both the executive and the legislature. This can slow down the legislative process and lead to delays in passing important laws.

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The warrant chiefs were rejected in Eastern Nigeria mainly because the system was not in line with the customary traditions of the people. The warrant chiefs were appointed by the British colonial government and were not chosen by the people themselves, which went against the traditional way of selecting leaders. Additionally, the warrant chiefs were seen as puppets of the colonial government and were not trusted by the local population. This led to a loss of respect for the chiefs and their authority, ultimately leading to their rejection. It is worth noting that issues such as the educational level or ethnicity of the chiefs were not the main reasons for their rejection.

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Delegated legislation is a process where the legislative body delegates some of its powers to other bodies or officials. One of the arguments against delegated legislation is that it is against the principle of separation of powers. The principle of separation of powers is the idea that the government should be divided into separate branches, each with its own powers and responsibilities, to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. Delegated legislation can potentially violate this principle because it allows the legislative body to delegate some of its powers to other branches or officials, which can blur the lines between the different branches of government. This can lead to a situation where one branch of government has too much power or is able to exert too much influence over the other branches. For example, if the executive branch is given too much power to make laws through delegated legislation, it can potentially encroach on the functions of the legislative branch, which is responsible for making laws. This can lead to a situation where the executive branch becomes too powerful and the legislative branch becomes weaker. Overall, the argument against delegated legislation is that it can undermine the principle of separation of powers and lead to a concentration of power in one branch of government, which can be detrimental to democracy and good governance.

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In Nigeria, the concurrent list of powers belongs to the federal and state governments. The concurrent list is a category of legislative powers that are shared between the federal government and the state governments. This means that both the federal and state governments have the authority to make laws and regulations in these areas. Some of the items on the concurrent list include agriculture, health, education, and transportation, among others. This means that both the federal and state governments can create laws and policies related to these areas, as long as they do not conflict with each other or with any laws created by the federal government. The concurrent list is important because it allows for a degree of flexibility and decentralization in the Nigerian government. It allows for the federal government to set broad policies and standards, while also allowing state governments to tailor those policies to meet the specific needs and circumstances of their states. Overall, the concurrent list of powers in Nigeria helps to ensure that both the federal and state governments have the authority to create laws and policies that benefit their citizens, while also promoting a unified and cohesive national government.

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A multi-party system often leads to the formation of coalition governments. In a multi-party system, there are multiple political parties that compete for power and influence in government. This is in contrast to a two-party system, where there are only two major political parties. When there are multiple political parties in a system, it is unlikely that any one party will win a majority of the seats in government. This means that in order to form a government, parties may need to form a coalition with each other, where they agree to work together and share power. Coalition governments can have advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, they can bring together a diverse range of perspectives and experiences, which can lead to more inclusive policies and better decision-making. On the other hand, coalition governments can be fragile, as disagreements between coalition partners can lead to the collapse of the government. Overall, the formation of coalition governments is a common outcome of multi-party systems, as it allows for greater representation of different interests and perspectives.

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Ladoke Akintola was dismissed from the Action Group at the Jos Congress of February 1962.

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Baron Montesquieu was noted for the theory of "separation of powers." This theory suggests that the powers of the government should be divided into three separate branches: the legislative, executive, and judiciary. Each branch should have its own distinct powers and responsibilities, and no single branch should be able to control or dominate the others. This system of checks and balances helps to prevent abuses of power and protects the rights and freedoms of the citizens.

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Countries adopt a federal system of government because of the fear of domination of minorities. In a federal system, power is shared between a central government and its constituent states or provinces. This allows for greater regional autonomy and decision-making power. It also ensures that the interests of minority groups are protected by giving them a greater voice and representation in government. By giving power to the states, the federal government can prevent any one group from dominating the others, which can help to promote stability and unity within the country.

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The Richards Constitution is the Nigerian constitution that brought the Northern Provinces into the Legislative Council. The Richards Constitution was enacted in 1946 and introduced a new system of government for Nigeria, which included the establishment of a federal system of government, with three regions: Northern, Western, and Eastern. Prior to the enactment of the Richards Constitution, the Northern Provinces were not represented in the Legislative Council. The Constitution created a central legislative council for Nigeria, with members appointed by the Governor, and a regional house of assembly for each of the three regions, which were partly elected and partly appointed. The Richards Constitution provided the Northern Provinces with limited representation in the Legislative Council, which was a significant development towards greater political representation and participation for the region.

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A system in which one level of government exercises an overwhelming authority over others can best be described as a unitary system. In a unitary system, the central or national government holds most of the power and authority, and it delegates some of the powers to the lower levels of government such as regional or local governments. The national government has the power to create, merge or abolish local governments, and it can also control the budgets and policies of those lower levels of government. This is in contrast to a federal system where the powers are shared between the national and lower levels of government, and each level has its own area of authority.

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A constitution that has special rules for its amendment is said to be rigid. This means that the process of amending the constitution is difficult and requires more than just a simple majority vote in the legislature. The purpose of having special rules for amendment is to protect the constitution from being easily changed by those in power, and to ensure that any changes made reflect the will of the people and the nation as a whole. This often involves requiring a supermajority vote, a national referendum, or other specific requirements in order to amend the constitution. Rigid constitutions are often found in federal systems where there is a need to balance the powers of the central government with those of the states or regions.

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A one-party system is a type of political system where only one political party has the legal right to form the government. One major weakness of such a system is that it encourages the emergence of dictators. This is because there is no opposition party to provide checks and balances, and the ruling party can easily become authoritarian and suppress dissenting voices. Without competition, there is little incentive for the ruling party to act in the best interests of the people, and leaders may become more focused on retaining power than serving the needs of the population. Overall, a one-party system undermines the principles of democracy and can lead to abuses of power.

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Under a two-party system, the opposition party is as important as the ruling party because it serves as the alternative government. In a two-party system, the majority of the seats in parliament are held by members of the two main parties. This means that the opposition party represents a significant portion of the electorate and has a role to play in holding the ruling party accountable. The opposition party serves as a check on the ruling party, questioning their policies and decisions, and holding them accountable for their actions. This helps to prevent the ruling party from becoming too dominant and abusing their power. The opposition party can also propose alternative policies and ideas, providing voters with a choice between different visions for the country. Moreover, the opposition party can help to force the government to resign in cases of major policy failures or scandals. This ensures that the government remains accountable to the people and can be held responsible for its actions. Overall, the opposition party plays a critical role in a two-party system, providing a check on the ruling party and serving as the alternative government. Without a strong opposition party, the ruling party may become too powerful and abuse its power, leading to a breakdown of democracy.

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The modern idea of democracy is a system of government where citizens have a say in the decisions that affect their lives, and power is exercised through the participation of the people in the process of making decisions. However, democracy does not include unlimited freedom, as it is governed by the rule of law and the protection of individual and minority rights. Therefore, the answer to the question is "unlimited freedom." Democracy seeks to balance freedom with responsibility and accountability in the exercise of power. The other options, including universal suffrage, periodic elections, and equality before the law, are all essential elements of modern democracy.

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The chairman of the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) during the Second Republic in Nigeria was Obafemi Awolowo. Obafemi Awolowo was a prominent Nigerian nationalist and statesman who founded and led the UPN. He was a highly respected figure in Nigerian politics and played a key role in Nigeria's struggle for independence from Britain. As the chairman of UPN, he advocated for progressive policies such as free education and healthcare, and worked tirelessly to improve the lives of Nigerians. Awolowo's legacy continues to inspire generations of Nigerians, and he is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the country's history.

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A system in which one level of government exercises an overwhelming authority over others can best be described as a unitary system. In a unitary system, the central or national government has the power to make decisions on behalf of all other levels of government, such as regional or local governments. Under a unitary system, the central government has the power to create or abolish regional or local governments, as well as to appoint their leaders. The central government also has the power to dictate policies and laws that affect all regions or localities within the country. This centralized system of governance can be efficient and effective in certain circumstances, such as in countries with a relatively homogeneous population or a small geographic size. However, it can also lead to a lack of representation and participation at the regional or local levels of government, as well as potential conflicts between the central and regional or local governments. In summary, a system in which one level of government exercises an overwhelming authority over others can best be described as a unitary system. Under this system, the central or national government has the power to make decisions on behalf of all other levels of government, potentially leading to a lack of representation and participation at the regional or local levels.

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The process by which people vote to elect their representatives is called an electoral system. In an electoral system, citizens of a country or region cast their votes to choose their preferred candidates to represent them in government. This process is a fundamental aspect of democracy, as it allows citizens to have a say in who will govern them and make decisions on their behalf. There are various types of electoral systems, such as first-past-the-post, proportional representation, and ranked choice voting, among others. These systems determine how votes are counted and how seats in government are allocated to the winning candidates. In summary, an electoral system is the process by which people vote to elect their representatives. It is a vital component of democracy, as it allows citizens to have a voice in who governs them and how decisions are made on their behalf.

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The office of the ombudsman is created to act as an agency to redress maladministration. An ombudsman is a public official appointed to investigate complaints made by citizens against the government, public authorities, or corporations. The office of the ombudsman serves as an intermediary between the government and the citizens, ensuring that government agencies act in accordance with the law and do not violate the rights of the people. The ombudsman investigates complaints of maladministration, such as abuse of power, failure to provide a service, or procedural irregularities, and makes recommendations for redress. The ombudsman is an important component of good governance, as it promotes accountability, transparency, and responsiveness in government.

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A major function of a public corporation is to provide certain essential services for all. Public corporations are established by the government to provide necessary goods or services to the public, which may not be possible for private companies to provide. These services may include healthcare, education, transportation, utilities, and other services that are deemed essential for the well-being of society. Public corporations are also responsible for collecting revenue for the government, but their primary function is to serve the public by providing necessary goods and services.

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An unwritten constitution is a type of constitution where the body of rules and laws cannot all be found in a single document. It refers to a constitution that has not been codified or written down in one comprehensive document, but instead derives from a combination of sources such as court judgments, conventions, and past practices. In an unwritten constitution, the source of the constitution is not from a single document, but rather from a collection of laws, precedents, and customs that have developed over time. This is different from a written constitution, where the body of rules and laws is contained in a single document.

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One form of delegated legislation is statutory instruments. Statutory instruments are rules, regulations, and orders made by government ministers, departments, and other bodies under the authority of an Act of Parliament. In other words, statutory instruments are laws made by bodies other than Parliament but with the authority of Parliament. Delegated legislation refers to the process of entrusting some of the law-making powers of the legislature to the executive or other subordinate bodies. This form of legislation is necessary to enable effective governance and to ensure that laws can be made and amended quickly and efficiently in response to changing circumstances. Therefore, of the four options given, statutory instruments are a type of delegated legislation, while case laws, conventions, and man-made laws are not forms of delegated legislation.

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The three main contesting issues about revenue allocation in Nigeria are derivation, population, and even development. Derivation refers to the extent to which oil-producing states receive a larger share of the revenue generated from oil sales. Population refers to the argument that states with larger populations should receive a larger share of the revenue to meet the needs of their people. Even development refers to the argument that all states should receive an equal share of the revenue to ensure that there is balanced development across the country. These issues have been a source of ongoing debate and controversy in Nigeria, with various groups advocating for different approaches to revenue allocation.

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One demerit of bicameral legislature is that passing of bills into acts is delayed. A bicameral legislature is a system of government in which the legislative branch of government is divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses. In such a system, bills must pass through both chambers before they can be enacted into law. The process of passing bills through two chambers can be time-consuming and lead to delays. If there is disagreement between the two chambers, the bill may need to be amended or renegotiated, which can further prolong the process. As a result, bicameral legislatures may not be as efficient in passing laws as unicameral legislatures. Therefore, of the four options given, passing of bills into acts being delayed is a demerit of bicameral legislature, while the scope for political participation being limited, no safeguard for the minority groups, and there is tendency for despotic rule are not demerits of bicameral legislature.

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The dissolution of parliament is usually followed by a general election. When a parliament is dissolved, it means that all the members of parliament leave their positions, and new elections are held to choose new members. Therefore, a general election is the process by which citizens in a country vote to choose their representatives in parliament, usually after the dissolution of the previous parliament. This process ensures that citizens have a say in who represents them in the parliament and makes important decisions on their behalf.

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If a receiving state does not approve a diplomat on account of their past activities, the diplomat is considered a persona non grata. This means that the diplomat is unacceptable to the host government and must leave the country. The term is derived from Latin, meaning "an unwelcome person." This action is a serious form of diplomatic protest and is usually taken when there is a major disagreement between the sending and receiving state. Once a diplomat is declared persona non grata, they lose their diplomatic immunity and may be subject to arrest or expulsion from the country.

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In a democracy, the primary method of acquiring political power is through elections. This is because in a democracy, the power to govern is vested in the people who exercise it through their elected representatives. Through free and fair elections, citizens are able to choose their leaders and hold them accountable for their actions. This is in contrast to other methods such as heredity, imposition, or selection, where power is concentrated in the hands of a few individuals or groups without regard for the will of the people. Therefore, the correct answer is election.

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Judicial independence means that the courts are independent of the executive and the legislature. This means that the judiciary, which includes the judges and the court system, is free from external influence and can make decisions based solely on the law and the facts of the case. The executive branch of government, which includes the President or Prime Minister and their Cabinet, and the legislative branch, which includes the Parliament or Congress, should not be able to control or influence the decisions of the courts. This is important because it ensures that the courts can act as a check and balance on the other branches of government and protect individual rights and liberties. Judicial independence is a key aspect of the rule of law, which is the principle that everyone, including those in power, is subject to the law and must be held accountable for their actions.

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The practice by which semi-autonomous units are given part of governmental powers and functions is known as devolution. Devolution is the transfer of powers and responsibilities from a central government to subnational or local governments. This allows these subnational units to have more control and autonomy over matters that affect them directly, such as healthcare, education, and local infrastructure. Devolution can also help to promote regional development and provide more responsive and effective governance at the local level.

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The organ of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) responsible for the appointment of the Secretary-General is the Assembly of the Heads of State and Governments. The Secretary-General is the chief administrative officer of the OAU and is responsible for managing its day-to-day affairs. The Assembly, which consists of the heads of state and government of member countries, is the highest decision-making body of the OAU. As such, it has the authority to appoint the Secretary-General, who serves as the principal liaison between the OAU and member states, as well as with other international organizations. The Assembly may also assign the Secretary-General additional responsibilities as necessary.

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The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) was formed in 1934 to fight for political representation and social justice for Nigerians, particularly the youth. However, the movement collapsed because of leadership struggle among its leaders who could not agree on the best way to achieve the goals of the movement. This led to factionalism and infighting which weakened the movement and made it ineffective. Additionally, there were allegations of corruption and nepotism within the leadership which further eroded the trust and support of the members. The government ban on the press also contributed to the decline of the movement as it was unable to disseminate information and mobilize the public effectively. All these factors ultimately led to the collapse of the Nigerian Youth Movement.

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A multi-party system often leads to the formation of a coalition government. In a multi-party system, there are usually several political parties, each with their own agenda and support base. If no single party can secure a majority of seats in the legislative body, then the parties may choose to form a coalition government in order to govern effectively. A coalition government is formed when two or more political parties come together to form a majority and govern collectively. The parties in the coalition government agree to work together and share power and responsibilities, often by dividing up ministerial positions and agreeing on a common policy agenda. A coalition government can provide greater stability and represent a wider range of interests than a single-party government. However, it can also be challenging to maintain a cohesive and effective government when parties have different ideologies and goals.

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Political sovereignty in the state resides with the people. This means that the ultimate power to govern the state belongs to the citizens of the state, who exercise this power through their chosen representatives in government. The people have the right to choose their leaders, make decisions about public policies, and hold their leaders accountable for their actions. While the executive, national assembly, and international community may play important roles in the governance of the state, their power is ultimately derived from the people, who hold the ultimate authority to decide the direction and priorities of the state.

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The Richards Constitution, introduced in 1946 by Governor Sir Arthur Richards, replaced the Clifford Constitution of 1922. Its main features are as follows.

1. Introduction of the regional system: For the first time Nigeria was divided into three regions, the Northern, Western and Eastern Regions, laying the foundation for later federalism and regionalism.
2. Establishment of Regional Houses of Assembly: A House of Assembly was created for each region, and the North had in addition a House of Chiefs, giving the regions their own deliberative bodies.
3. An enlarged Central Legislative Council: A single Legislative Council for the whole country was retained, and for the first time its authority extended to the North, which had previously been governed separately by proclamation.
4. Unofficial majority in the Legislative Council: The Central Legislative Council had an unofficial (African) majority, though the members were largely nominated rather than elected.
5. Predominance of nomination over election: Most members of the councils were nominated by the Governor; the elective principle was retained only for a few seats in Lagos and Calabar, inherited from the Clifford Constitution.
6. Advisory role of the regional councils: The Regional Houses were largely deliberative and advisory bodies; they could discuss and make recommendations but real power remained with the Central Government and the Governor.
7. Retention of strong governor's powers: The Governor retained wide powers, including reserve and veto powers over legislation, so that ultimate authority stayed with the colonial administration.
8. Aim of promoting unity in diversity: The constitution was intended to promote the unity of Nigeria while providing for the diverse elements of the country and giving greater participation to Nigerians in their own affairs.
9. Long tenure without consultation: It was designed to last nine years and was imposed without adequate consultation with Nigerians, a feature that drew strong criticism from nationalists such as Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe.

Although criticised for its non-consultative introduction and limited elective element, the Richards Constitution is important as the one that introduced regionalism into Nigerian constitutional development.

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Feudalism was a political, social and economic system that prevailed in medieval Europe and in parts of pre-colonial Africa, based on land ownership and a chain of personal obligations between lord and vassal. Its main characteristics are as follows.

1. Land as the basis of power and wealth: Land (the fief) was the principal source of wealth and status. Whoever controlled land controlled political and economic power.
2. A hierarchical class structure: Society was rigidly stratified, typically with the king or monarch at the top, followed by the nobles or lords, then the knights or vassals, and the peasants or serfs at the bottom.
3. The lord-vassal relationship: Land was granted by a lord to a vassal in return for military service, loyalty and other obligations, creating a chain of personal ties running from the king down to the lowest tenant.
4. Obligations and services: Vassals owed their lords military service, homage, fealty and various dues, while lords owed their vassals protection and the grant of land.
5. Serfdom and forced labour: The peasants or serfs were tied to the land, worked on the lord's estate (the manor), paid rents and dues, and were not free to leave without the lord's permission.
6. The manorial (self-sufficient) economy: Economic life centred on the manor, which was largely self-sufficient, producing most of what it needed and engaging in little trade or use of money.
7. Decentralised political authority: Political power was fragmented among many local lords rather than concentrated in a strong central government, so that each lord exercised authority, including justice, over his own domain.
8. Ascription and heredity: Status and position were largely inherited and fixed by birth, allowing little social mobility between classes.
9. Fusion of political and economic power: The same landowning class that controlled the economy also exercised political and judicial authority over the people on its land.

Feudalism therefore rested on land tenure, a hierarchy of mutual obligations and the subordination of a servile peasantry to a landowning aristocracy.

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Pressure groups are organised associations that seek to influence government policy in favour of their members' interests without themselves aiming to capture political power. They employ a variety of methods to achieve their objectives.

1. Lobbying: They approach and persuade legislators, ministers and other public officials through direct contact, presentation of memoranda and personal representations to secure favourable decisions.
2. Peaceful demonstrations, rallies and protests: They organise marches, processions and public rallies to draw attention to their demands and show the strength of their support.
3. Strikes and industrial action: Especially in the case of labour unions, they withdraw services, embark on go-slows or picket to compel the government or employers to meet their demands.
4. Use of the mass media and publicity: They publish articles, grant press interviews, sponsor advertisements and use radio and television to mobilise public opinion in support of their cause.
5. Petitions and memoranda: They submit written petitions, memoranda and position papers to government, commissions of inquiry and legislative committees.
6. Litigation: They institute or support court actions to challenge unfavourable laws or policies and to defend the interests of their members.
7. Financial contributions and support to political parties: They fund and support parties and candidates sympathetic to their cause in order to gain favourable treatment.
8. Dialogue, negotiation and consultation: They enter into discussions and collective bargaining with the government or employers to resolve issues amicably.
9. Threats and boycotts: They may threaten to withdraw cooperation, boycott goods, services or elections, or otherwise apply pressure to force concessions.
10. Research and expert advice: They provide governments with technical information, research findings and expert opinion to shape policy in their favour.
11. Civil disobedience: As a last resort, some groups may refuse to obey certain laws or regulations they consider unjust.

Through these methods, pressure groups seek to influence the making and implementation of public policy in their favour.

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A unitary system of government is one in which all constitutional powers are concentrated in a single central government, from which any powers exercised by lower units are delegated. Countries adopt this system for the following reasons.

1. Homogeneous population: Where the people are largely of the same ethnic, cultural, religious or linguistic background, there is little need for the separate regional autonomy that federalism provides, so a single central authority suffices.
2. Small size of the country: In a geographically small state, one central government can conveniently administer the whole territory, making the multiple layers of a federation unnecessary.
3. Strong and effective central control: A unitary system provides a single, strong centre of authority capable of taking firm and quick decisions and maintaining national unity and order.
4. Cheaper and more economical to run: Because it avoids the duplication of governmental organs found in federations, a unitary system reduces the cost of administration.
5. Uniformity of laws and policies: It allows laws, policies and standards to be uniform throughout the country, avoiding the confusion of differing regional laws.
6. Prevention of disunity and secession: By concentrating power at the centre, it discourages the growth of strong regional loyalties that might threaten the unity of the state or lead to secession.
7. Simplicity and clarity of administration: Fewer levels of government make the system simple to operate and free of the disputes over the division of powers common in federations.
8. Quick and flexible decision-making: A single centre of authority can respond promptly to national problems and emergencies without lengthy consultation between tiers of government.
9. Absence of demand for regional autonomy: Where component units do not press for self-government or fear domination, there is no pressure to adopt a federal structure.

For these reasons, countries such as Britain, France and Ghana operate unitary systems of government.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Local authorities in Nigeria suffer chronically from inadequate revenue, which weakens their capacity for grassroots development. Their revenue can be improved through the following measures.

1. Efficient collection of internally generated revenue: Local authorities should tighten the collection of the rates, tenement rates, licences, fees and levies within their jurisdiction, blocking leakages and prosecuting defaulters.
2. Expansion of the tax base: They should identify and bring into the tax net new sources of revenue, such as market and motor-park fees, radio and television licences, and levies on small businesses and property.
3. Establishment of revenue-yielding projects: Councils can invest in commercial ventures such as markets, motor parks, guest houses, transport services and small industries whose profits provide steady income.
4. Timely and adequate statutory allocation: The federal and state governments should release the councils' statutory allocations from the Federation Account promptly and in full, and the review of the sharing formula in favour of local government would boost their funds.
5. Abolition or reform of the joint state-local government account: Ending the diversion of local government funds through the joint account, or ensuring transparency in its operation, would leave councils with more money.
6. Elimination of corruption and financial leakages: Strengthening auditing, accountability and anti-corruption measures would prevent embezzlement and diversion of council funds.
7. Employment of qualified revenue staff: Recruiting and training competent finance and revenue personnel would improve assessment, collection and record-keeping.
8. Grants and loans: Councils can obtain grants-in-aid, matching grants and loans from higher levels of government or financial institutions to finance capital projects.
9. Public enlightenment on tax obligations: Educating citizens on the need to pay rates and taxes promptly would improve voluntary compliance and collection.
10. Prudent financial management: Cutting waste, avoiding frivolous spending and budgeting carefully would make the available revenue go further.

These measures would broaden the revenue base of local authorities and make them more effective agents of development.

Akọwa Nkọwa

A democratic state is one in which supreme political authority resides in the people, who exercise it directly or through freely elected representatives. Such a state displays the following basic features.

1. Popular sovereignty: Ultimate power belongs to the people, who are the source of governmental authority and who choose and can remove their rulers.
2. Periodic free and fair elections: Governments are chosen through regular elections conducted on the basis of universal adult suffrage, secret ballot and equal value of votes.
3. Rule of law: Everyone, including those in government, is subject to the law; the law is supreme, and no one is above it or punished except for a breach of established law.
4. Fundamental human rights: The rights and freedoms of citizens, such as freedom of speech, association, movement and religion, are guaranteed and protected by the constitution and the courts.
5. Constitutional and limited government: Government operates within the limits set by a constitution, and its powers are defined and restrained to prevent arbitrary rule.
6. Separation of powers and checks and balances: The legislative, executive and judicial functions are shared among distinct organs that check one another to prevent the abuse of power.
7. Existence of an independent judiciary: The courts are free from executive or legislative control and can interpret the law and protect citizens' rights impartially.
8. Multi-party system and political freedom: Citizens are free to form and join political parties and to organise opposition, providing choice and a check on the government.
9. Freedom of the press and public opinion: A free press and freedom of expression allow the free flow of information and enable citizens to criticise the government and form informed opinions.
10. Political equality and majority rule with respect for minority rights: All citizens are equal before the law and in political participation, decisions are taken by the majority, but the rights of minorities are respected.
11. Accountability and responsible government: Those in power are answerable to the people for their actions and can be removed through constitutional means.

Where these features are present, a state can properly be described as democratic.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The Assembly of Heads of State and Government was the supreme organ of the Organization of African Unity (O.A.U.). It was composed of the presidents and heads of government of all member states and met at least once a year. Its functions were as follows.

1. Supreme policy-making body: It was the highest organ of the O.A.U. and laid down the general policy and direction of the organisation.
2. Discussion of matters of common concern: It deliberated on issues of common interest to Africa with a view to coordinating and harmonising the general policy of member states.
3. Coordination and harmonisation of member states' policies: It worked to bring the policies and activities of member states into harmony to promote African unity and solidarity.
4. Review of the structure and functions of other organs: It examined, coordinated and supervised the functioning of the other institutions of the organisation, including the Council of Ministers and the specialised commissions.
5. Admission of new members: It considered and approved applications for membership of the organisation.
6. Settlement of disputes among member states: It considered disputes between member states and worked toward their peaceful resolution.
7. Election of officers: It elected its chairman and other officials and appointed or approved key officers of the organisation.
8. Approval of the budget: It considered and approved the budget and financial arrangements of the organisation, and fixed members' contributions.
9. Determination of the fight against colonialism and apartheid: It set the policy and coordinated African efforts for the total liberation of the continent from colonialism, racism and apartheid.
10. Amendment of the Charter: It could consider and adopt amendments to the O.A.U. Charter.

As the assembly of the continent's leaders, it therefore gave the O.A.U. its overall direction and took the final decisions on all major African questions.

Akọwa Nkọwa

The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (N.C.N.C.) was formed in 1944 under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay as President and Nnamdi Azikiwe as Secretary-General. It was the first major nationalist party with a nationwide outlook, and it pursued the following objectives.

1. To achieve self-government and independence: Its foremost aim was to secure political freedom and self-government for Nigeria and to bring an end to British colonial rule.
2. To promote national unity: It sought to weld the various peoples, ethnic groups and organisations of Nigeria and the Cameroons into one united nation, transcending tribal and sectional divisions.
3. To secure political education and enlightenment of the people: It aimed to educate Nigerians politically, awaken their national consciousness and mobilise them for the anti-colonial struggle.
4. To defend and promote the political and economic interests of Nigerians: It championed the rights and welfare of the people and worked to improve their economic and social conditions.
5. To oppose obnoxious colonial policies: It campaigned against unpopular colonial measures, notably the Richards Constitution of 1946 and the objectionable land and mineral ordinances of the time.
6. To provide a national platform for political action: It set out to unite the numerous trade unions, ethnic unions, social clubs and political groups under a single national umbrella for effective political action.
7. To secure improved constitutional and representative government: It demanded greater African participation in government and more representative institutions leading toward full self-rule.
8. To promote democracy and protect fundamental rights: It stood for democratic government and the protection of the rights and liberties of the people.

Through these objectives, the N.C.N.C. played a leading role in the nationalist movement and in the eventual attainment of Nigerian independence.

Akọwa Nkọwa

(a) Meaning of foreign policy

Foreign policy is the set of principles, goals and strategies that a state adopts to guide its relations and dealings with other states and international organisations in the pursuit and protection of its national interest. It is the totality of a country's actions, attitudes and decisions in the conduct of its external affairs, aimed at safeguarding its security, promoting its economic and political interests and enhancing its image in the international community.

(b) Basic factors that influence Nigeria's foreign policy

1. National interest: The overriding factor is the protection and promotion of Nigeria's security, economic and political interests, which every foreign policy decision seeks to serve.
2. Geographical location: Nigeria's position in West Africa and on the African continent shapes its concern for the peace, stability and integration of its immediate sub-region and of Africa as a whole.
3. Historical and colonial ties: Nigeria's colonial past and membership of bodies such as the Commonwealth influence its relations with Britain and other former colonial powers.
4. Economic considerations: The state of the economy, dependence on oil, the need for trade, investment, aid and markets strongly influences the direction of foreign policy.
5. Military strength: The size and capability of the armed forces affect Nigeria's ability to project power, undertake peacekeeping and back its diplomacy, as in ECOMOG operations.
6. Population and human resources: Nigeria's large population and manpower give it a leadership claim in Africa and influence its role and voice in international affairs.
7. Ideology and political system: The prevailing ideology and the nature of the government of the day (military or civilian) shape the tone and priorities of foreign policy.
8. Public opinion and pressure groups: The views of citizens, the press, the National Assembly and interest groups influence foreign policy decisions.
9. Membership of international organisations: Nigeria's membership of the AU (formerly OAU), ECOWAS, the UN, the Commonwealth and the Non-Aligned Movement imposes obligations that shape its external conduct.
10. The international environment: Global power alignments, the dictates of world peace and the actions of other states affect the choices open to Nigeria.
11. The personality of leaders: The disposition and vision of the head of government and key decision-makers influence particular foreign-policy positions.

Akọwa Nkọwa

On 29 July 1975 the government of General Yakubu Gowon was overthrown in a bloodless coup that brought General Murtala Muhammed to power. The coup was caused by a combination of the following factors.

1. Failure to hand over power to civilians: Gowon had promised in 1970 to return the country to civil rule by 1976, but in 1974 he reneged, declaring the date unrealistic. This broken promise angered many Nigerians and members of the armed forces.
2. Corruption and indiscipline in government: Widespread corruption, indiscipline and abuse of office by public officials, including some of Gowon's own military governors, discredited the administration.
3. Indictment of the state governors: Most of Gowon's twelve military governors were widely accused of amassing illegal wealth and gross misconduct, yet he failed to call them to order or remove them.
4. Economic mismanagement: The government was accused of mismanaging the economy despite the oil-boom revenues; the notorious Lagos cement armada (the port congestion scandal) was a glaring example of waste and poor planning.
5. Insensitivity to public grievances: The administration appeared aloof and unresponsive to the hardships and complaints of the people, including delays over a census and the general drift of government.
6. Slow pace of decision-making and drift: Gowon's style of endless consultation and indecision created a sense of drift and inertia in the government.
7. Discontent within the army: Grievances over promotions, welfare, prolonged military engagements and the general conduct of affairs bred discontent among sections of the armed forces.
8. The 1973 census controversy: The disputed and inconclusive national census heightened political tension and further weakened confidence in the regime.
9. Loss of credibility and public confidence: The combination of these failures eroded the legitimacy of the Gowon administration and made its overthrow acceptable to many Nigerians.

These accumulated grievances provided the justification for the July 1975 coup that ended Gowon's nine-year rule.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Nationalism in West Africa was the organised demand by the indigenous peoples for freedom from colonial rule and for self-government. Many of the very policies of the British colonial administration provoked resentment and thereby stimulated the rise of nationalism. These policies contributed in the following ways.

1. Racial discrimination and segregation: The British practised racial discrimination in the civil service, residential areas, clubs and social life, treating Africans as inferior. This injured African pride and stirred resentment against colonial rule.
2. Exclusion of Africans from the higher civil service and top posts: Educated Africans were denied senior positions in the administration, which were reserved for Europeans. This bred discontent among the educated elite who then agitated for change.
3. Denial of political participation: Colonial constitutions gave Africans little or no real say in the government of their own countries, prompting demands for greater representation and self-rule.
4. Introduction of Western education: Colonial (and missionary) education produced a class of educated Africans - lawyers, journalists, teachers and doctors - who became aware of their rights and provided the leadership of the nationalist movements.
5. Economic exploitation: Policies of forced labour, heavy taxation, low prices for cash crops, expropriation of land and the domination of trade by European firms impoverished the people and fuelled anti-colonial feeling.
6. Harsh and autocratic administration: The arbitrary and high-handed conduct of colonial officials, and the use of unpopular measures under indirect rule, alienated the people.
7. Improved communication and transport: Roads, railways, the telegraph and a common language brought people together, eased the spread of nationalist ideas and made organisation across ethnic lines possible.
8. Urbanisation: The growth of towns brought diverse peoples together, created a working class and provided centres where grievances could be shared and nationalist movements organised.
9. Amalgamation and creation of new states: The lumping together of different peoples under one administration created larger political units within which a common nationalist consciousness could develop.
10. Restriction of press freedom: Attempts to muzzle the African press provoked resistance and turned newspapers into powerful instruments of nationalist agitation.

Thus the discriminatory, exploitative and undemocratic character of British colonial policies, together with the education and infrastructure it introduced, combined to arouse and strengthen West African nationalism.

Akọwa Nkọwa

Before the advent of colonial rule, the Hausa-Fulani of Northern Nigeria (a British West African territory) governed themselves through a highly organised, centralised system of administration based on the emirate structure and Islamic law.

1. The Emir as head of the state: Each emirate was headed by an Emir, who was the political, administrative and religious head. He wielded executive, legislative and judicial authority and was regarded as the spiritual leader of his people.
2. A centralised and hierarchical structure: Authority flowed downward from the Emir through a well-defined chain of officials, making the system firmly centralised and orderly.
3. Council of advisers (title-holders): The Emir ruled with the advice and assistance of a council of appointed officials who headed various departments of state. These included the Waziri (chief adviser or prime minister), the Galadima (in charge of the capital), the Madawaki (commander of the army), the Sarkin Ruwa (in charge of water/fisheries), the Sarkin Fada (head of palace officials) and the Maaji (treasurer).
4. Administration based on Islamic law: Government and justice were founded on the Sharia (Islamic law). The Alkali courts, presided over by learned judges (Alkalis), administered justice according to Islamic law, with the Emir's court as the highest.
5. Taxation system: There was an organised system of taxation, including Zakat (alms), Jangali (cattle tax), Kharaj (land tax) and other levies, collected by appointed officials and used to run the administration.
6. District and village administration: The emirate was divided into districts headed by District Heads (Hakimi) and villages headed by Village Heads, who administered their areas and collected taxes on behalf of the Emir.
7. Standing army: The state maintained an organised army under the Madawaki for defence, the maintenance of order and the expansion of the emirate.
8. Appointment and control of officials: The Emir appointed, promoted and could dismiss the officials who served under him, ensuring loyalty and control.

This centralised, hierarchical and Islamic-based system made the Hausa-Fulani emirates well suited to the indirect rule later adopted by the British.