WAEC SSCE - Animal Husbandry - 2019

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The correct answer is "make abnormal profit." Middlemen are individuals or companies who act as intermediaries between producers and consumers of goods or services. In the marketing of animal products, middlemen may create artificial scarcity by limiting the supply of animal products available on the market. By doing so, they can create a situation where demand for the products outstrips supply, which in turn allows them to charge higher prices and make abnormal profits. Artificial scarcity can be created in a number of ways, such as by hoarding products, restricting access to markets, or manipulating prices. In some cases, middlemen may even resort to unethical or illegal practices in order to create scarcity and drive up prices. Ultimately, the practice of creating artificial scarcity can be harmful to both producers and consumers of animal products. Producers may be forced to sell their products at lower prices or may be unable to sell them at all, while consumers may be forced to pay higher prices for essential products.

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The correct answer is "six days." Candling is a process of shining a bright light through an egg to observe the growth and development of the embryo inside. During incubation of chicken eggs, candling is usually done at several points to monitor the growth and development of the embryo and check for any problems or defects. The first candling is typically carried out after six days of incubation. At this stage, the embryo should have developed to a point where it is visible when a bright light is shone through the eggshell. The candling process at this stage allows the farmer to check for any signs of embryo development, such as the presence of veins or blood vessels, and to identify any clear or unfertilized eggs that can be removed from the incubator. Subsequent candlings are typically done at around ten and eighteen days of incubation, to monitor the continued growth and development of the embryo and check for any potential problems. The final candling is usually done on the 21st day, which is the day that the chicks are expected to hatch. At this point, the farmer can identify any eggs that have not developed properly and remove them from the incubator.

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Staggered gait and rough coat are signs that indicate that the animal is sick. A staggered gait refers to an unsteady or uneven walking pattern, which can be a sign that the animal is in pain or discomfort. A rough coat can indicate that the animal is not feeling well, as a healthy animal will usually have a smooth, shiny coat. These signs can be caused by a variety of illnesses or diseases, and it is important to seek veterinary care if you notice these symptoms in your animal. Early diagnosis and treatment can help to prevent the illness from becoming more severe and improve the chances of a full recovery.

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An ectoparasite is a type of parasite that lives on the outside of the host's body, feeding on blood or other bodily fluids. Among the options provided, the flea is the only organism that fits this description and is an ectoparasite. Fleas are tiny insects that live on the skin of animals, such as dogs and cats, and feed on their blood. They can cause itching, irritation, and even transmit diseases to their hosts. In contrast, the liver fluke and roundworm are internal parasites that live inside the body of their host, while the cattle egret is a bird that does not feed on the bodily fluids of other animals and is not a parasite. Therefore, the answer to the question is Flea.

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The correct answer is "Apiculture." Apiculture is the practice of keeping honey bees in hives for their honey, beeswax, and other products. Honey bees are important pollinators and play a crucial role in agriculture by helping to fertilize crops and ensure their growth and productivity. The practice of apiculture dates back thousands of years, and has been an important part of human history and culture. Today, beekeeping is practiced around the world, and is an important source of income and livelihood for many people. An apiary is a location where beehives are kept and managed for the purpose of apiculture. Aviculture is the practice of keeping and breeding birds, while silviculture is the management of forests and forested lands. These practices are related to agriculture, but are not the same as apiculture.

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The organism illustrated in the diagram appears to be Trypanosoma sp. Trypanosomes are a group of unicellular parasitic protozoa that can cause diseases in humans and animals. They are characterized by their elongated and slender shape, with a single flagellum that allows them to move through the bloodstream of their host. Trypanosomes can cause diseases such as African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, and Chagas disease in humans, as well as nagana and surra in animals. Therefore, the answer to the question is Trypanosoma sp.

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The failure of the testes to descend into the scrotal sac in livestock is referred to as "cryptorchidism". Cryptorchidism is a condition where one or both testes fail to descend from the abdomen into the scrotal sac, where they normally reside. This condition is relatively common in many species of livestock, including bulls, rams, and boars. Cryptorchidism can have negative effects on fertility and is a heritable trait, meaning that it can be passed on to offspring. Therefore, it is important for livestock producers to identify and cull cryptorchid animals from their breeding programs to maintain herd health and productivity.

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The correct answer is "Silage." Silage is a type of preserved forage that is made by partially fermenting grass, corn, or other crops. The process of making silage involves chopping the crops into small pieces, packing them tightly into a container such as a silo, and allowing them to ferment for several weeks. During fermentation, the natural sugars in the crops are converted to lactic acid by bacteria, which helps to preserve the forage. Silage is an important source of winter feed for livestock, as it provides a nutritious and palatable source of roughage. It is also a convenient way to store excess crops for later use, and can help farmers to make the most of their land and resources. Compost, soilage, and straw are all related to agriculture, but are not the same as silage. Compost is a type of organic matter that is decomposed and recycled to improve soil quality, while soilage refers to fresh forage that is fed to livestock directly from the field. Straw is a byproduct of cereal crops that is used for animal bedding or as a source of roughage, but is not fermented like silage.

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Mad cow disease, also known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), can easily spread on a farm through "overcrowding". Overcrowding occurs when too many animals are kept in a confined space, which can lead to increased stress, aggression, and the spread of infectious diseases. In the case of BSE, the disease is caused by an abnormal protein, called a prion, that can be transmitted through the consumption of contaminated feed or contact with infected nervous tissue. Overcrowding can increase the likelihood of contact between animals and the spread of BSE through contaminated feed or by direct contact with infected animals. Therefore, it is important for farmers to maintain appropriate stocking densities and to implement biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of BSE and other infectious diseases.

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The secondary host of an organism refers to the host in which a parasite undergoes a necessary developmental stage before it can infect its final host. For example, some parasites may require a secondary host such as a water snail, in addition to their primary host, such as a human, in order to complete their life cycle. The parasite may enter the secondary host as a larva or immature form, and then develop into a form that can infect the final host once it is ingested. In this case, the answer would be Water Snail as it serves as the secondary host for certain parasites.

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One disadvantage of selection is that some good traits may be eliminated. Selection is the process of choosing individuals with desirable traits for breeding purposes. While this process can result in improvement of the population over time, it can also have the unintended consequence of eliminating some good traits that were not the focus of the selection process. For example, if a farmer is only selecting for larger size in their livestock, they may unintentionally eliminate traits such as hardiness or disease resistance that are also important for the health and survival of the animals. This is why it is important to consider multiple traits when selecting individuals for breeding, and to be mindful of the potential trade-offs between different traits. By considering a variety of factors, farmers can help to ensure that their populations continue to be healthy and productive over time.

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In poultry management, an electric bulb is recommended for use in place of the equipment illustrated. The equipment illustrated appears to be a torch or fire-based light source, which can be dangerous in a poultry environment due to the potential for fire or injury. An electric bulb, on the other hand, provides a safe and reliable source of light that can be used to illuminate the poultry house. In addition to being safer, electric lighting can also be more energy-efficient and cost-effective than traditional fire-based lighting methods. It is also easier to control and adjust the brightness and duration of electric lighting, which can be important in creating the right environment for the poultry. For these reasons, it is recommended to use an electric bulb in place of a torch or other fire-based light source in poultry management.

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Centrosema pubescens is the forage crop that best controls soil erosion in a pasture. Centrosema pubescens is a leguminous forage crop that has a deep-rooted system that helps to stabilize soil and prevent erosion. It also has a spreading growth habit that helps to form a dense ground cover, which reduces runoff and protects the soil from erosion. In addition, Centrosema pubescens is known for its ability to fix nitrogen, which helps to improve soil fertility and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. Therefore, Centrosema pubescens is an excellent choice for farmers looking to control soil erosion in their pastures.

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In West Africa, farm animals are mostly kept for food and as a source of income. Livestock such as cows, sheep, goats, and chickens are important sources of protein and other nutrients for many people in West Africa. They are also a source of income, as they can be sold for meat or dairy products, or used for plowing fields and transportation. In addition to their practical uses, farm animals also have cultural and social significance in many West African communities, and may be kept for reasons such as prestige or as a symbol of wealth. Overall, farm animals play a vital role in the daily lives and economies of many people in West Africa, and are kept for a combination of practical, cultural, and economic reasons.

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The absence of pests and diseases in a pasture ensures increased productivity. Pests and diseases can have a significant impact on the health and productivity of pasture lands. Pests can damage or destroy crops and forage plants, while diseases can spread rapidly among plants and animals, reducing the overall health and productivity of the pasture. By maintaining a pasture free of pests and diseases, farmers can help to ensure that their crops and forage plants are healthy and able to grow and produce at their maximum potential. This, in turn, can result in increased productivity and higher yields, which can be important for the livelihoods and economic well-being of farmers and their communities. Overall, maintaining a pest and disease-free pasture is an important aspect of sustainable and productive agriculture, and is key to ensuring the health and productivity of the land and the animals that rely on it.

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The animal that is mainly kept for animal traction is the "bullock". A bullock is a castrated male cow that is trained to pull heavy loads, such as carts or plows, as a form of animal power. Bullocks are preferred for animal traction due to their strength and docile nature, which makes them easier to train than other animals such as horses or donkeys. In many parts of the world, bullocks are still used for agriculture and transportation, especially in rural areas where machinery is not readily available or affordable. Therefore, the correct option is "bullock".

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Calotropis procera is a plant that is commonly used as a source of coagulant in local cheese making. The plant produces a latex that contains enzymes that can coagulate milk, which is an important step in the cheese making process. The enzymes in the latex of Calotropis procera are similar to those found in animal rennet, which is traditionally used for cheese making. However, the use of Calotropis procera as a coagulant is preferred by many cheese makers because it is cheaper and more readily available than animal rennet. Therefore, the answer to the question is Calotropis procera.

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To prevent overgrazing of pasture, a farmer should adopt controlled stocking. Controlled stocking is a management strategy where the number of animals grazing on a particular pasture is regulated to prevent excessive grazing that can lead to degradation of the pasture. This is important because overgrazing can result in the loss of plant cover, which can lead to soil erosion and the degradation of soil quality. By limiting the number of animals grazing on a particular pasture, the farmer can allow the vegetation to recover and regrow, ensuring the sustainability of the pasture for future use. Therefore, the answer to the question is controlled stocking.

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The correct answer is "Shearing." Shearing is the process of removing the wool fleece from a sheep's body. It is typically done once a year, usually in the spring or early summer, when the sheep's wool is at its longest and heaviest. Shearing is an important part of sheep husbandry for several reasons. First, removing the wool helps to keep the sheep clean and healthy by reducing the risk of parasitic infestations and skin infections. Second, the wool is a valuable commodity that can be used to make a variety of products, including clothing, blankets, and carpets. During shearing, the sheep is typically restrained on a special shearing stand or table. The fleece is then removed using electric or manual shears, which cut the wool close to the skin without injuring the sheep. The wool is then sorted by quality and sent to a processing facility, where it is cleaned, carded, and spun into yarn. Overall, shearing is an important part of the wool production process and helps to ensure the health and well-being of sheep while providing a valuable resource for the textile industry.

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The secretion stored in the part labelled II is used for emulsification of fat. The part labelled II refers to the gallbladder, which stores and releases bile into the small intestine. Bile is a greenish-yellow fluid that is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It contains bile salts that act as emulsifiers, breaking down fat molecules into smaller droplets that can be more easily digested and absorbed by the body. This emulsification process is an essential step in the digestion of fats, as it increases the surface area of the fat droplets, allowing digestive enzymes to work more efficiently. Therefore, the secretion stored in the part labelled II (gallbladder) is mainly used for the emulsification of fat during digestion.

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The correct answer is "raw materials." When a farmer receives a supply order from a pharmaceutical company, it is likely that they are keeping farm animals for the purpose of providing raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry. Many pharmaceuticals are derived from animal products, such as insulin from pigs or cows, and antibodies from rabbits or goats. By keeping farm animals, the farmer is able to provide a reliable and sustainable source of these raw materials. Farm animals can also provide a variety of other raw materials, including meat, milk, eggs, and leather. These materials are used in a wide range of industries, from food production to fashion. While farm animals may provide some degree of security by providing a source of food and income, and may also have social or recreational value for some people, the primary purpose of keeping them in this context is to provide raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry.

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Rumination is a process of digestion that occurs in ruminant animals like cattle, sheep, and goats. During rumination, the animal regurgitates and re-chews partially digested food, which is also called cud. This process helps to break down the plant matter more thoroughly and extract more nutrients. Vomiting is not part of the process of rumination because it involves the expulsion of undigested food from the stomach, rather than the re-chewing of partially digested food. Therefore, the correct answer is (a) I and II only.

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A horse used for racing is an example of a farm animal raised for recreational activities. Horses are often raised specifically for the sport of horse racing, which is a popular form of entertainment and recreation in many parts of the world. These horses are trained to run at high speeds and compete against other horses in races. In order to become a successful racehorse, a horse must be physically fit, fast, and have the ability to perform well under pressure. This requires a combination of proper nutrition, training, and management, as well as a certain amount of natural talent and ability. Overall, horses used for racing are raised for the purpose of providing entertainment and recreation for people, rather than for food or other practical uses.

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The hormone responsible for broodiness in hens is prolactin. Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the development of the mammary gland and milk production in mammals. In hens, prolactin stimulates the instinct to sit on eggs and incubate them, which is known as broodiness. When a hen is broody, she will stop laying eggs and become very protective of her nest, making it difficult for farmers to collect eggs.

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a) (i) Five benefits of keeping bees:

1. Honey production: Bees are known for producing honey which is a valuable food source and can be sold for profit.
2. Pollination: Bees play an important role in pollinating crops, which is essential for food production.
3. Biodiversity: Bees help to increase biodiversity in an ecosystem by pollinating a wide range of plants.
4. Medicinal value: Bees produce beeswax, propolis, and royal jelly, all of which have medicinal properties.
5. Environmental benefits: Bees help to maintain a healthy ecosystem by playing a role in pollination, pest control, and soil fertility.

(ii) Steps involved in establishing an apiary:

1. Choose a suitable location: Find a location that is near a water source and has a good supply of nectar-producing plants.
2. Acquire equipment: You will need beekeeping equipment such as bee hives, bee suits, gloves, smoker, and tools.
3. Obtain bees: You can buy honeybee colonies or catch wild swarms and transfer them to your hives.
4. Establish the hives: Place the hives in a sunny location and orient them in a North-South direction.
5. Monitor and care for the bees: Regularly inspect the hives, feed the bees if necessary, and protect them from pests and diseases.

b) (i) Five ways of enhancing the productivity of a pig farm:

1. Proper nutrition: Provide the pigs with a balanced diet that meets their nutritional needs.
2. Proper housing: Ensure that the pigs have a comfortable and clean living environment.
3. Proper health management: Regularly check the health of the pigs and take action to prevent and treat diseases.
4. Proper breeding management: Use effective breeding techniques to improve the genetics of the pig population.
5. Proper waste management: Properly manage waste to prevent contamination and reduce odors.

(ii) Five management practices that are carried out on piglets from birth to weaning:

1. Proper nutrition: Provide the piglets with a balanced diet that meets their nutritional needs.
2. Proper housing: Ensure that the piglets have a comfortable and clean living environment.
3. Proper health management: Regularly check the health of the piglets and take action to prevent and treat diseases.
4. Socialization: Allow the piglets to interact with each other and their mother to develop social skills.
5. Weaning: Gradually introduce solid foods and reduce the amount of milk or formula the piglets receive until they are fully weaned.

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(a)
(i) The major nutrients supplied by Fish meal in animal diet are protein, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals.

(ii) The functions of these nutrients are:
- Protein and amino acids provide building blocks for growth and repair of tissues.
- Fatty acids are an important source of energy and help maintain healthy skin and coat.
- Vitamins and minerals support various metabolic processes and help maintain overall health.

(iii) Three feed stuffs that could be used in place of Fish meal are soybean meal, corn gluten meal, and blood meal.

(b)
Four reasons for keeping Chicken on a farm are:

- Meat production: Chickens are raised for their meat, which is a popular source of protein.
- Egg production: Hens lay eggs, which are also a source of protein and other nutrients.
- Manure production: Chicken manure is rich in nitrogen and other nutrients, making it a valuable fertilizer for crops.
- Income generation: Raising chickens can provide a source of income for farmers, either through the sale of meat and eggs or the sale of manure as fertilizer.

(c)
Three management practices carried out during the rearing of Chickens are:

- Housing: Chickens need to be housed in a secure, clean and well-ventilated environment.
- Feeding: Chickens need to be provided with a balanced and nutritious diet to ensure optimal growth and health.
- Health management: Regular monitoring for signs of disease and prompt treatment is important to prevent outbreaks and maintain a healthy flock.

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(a) Two uses of specimen D in animal production are:

1. To detect and diagnose diseases in animals: Specimen D could be a sample of blood, tissue, or bodily fluids that is collected from an animal and analyzed to determine if the animal is infected with a particular disease.
2. To monitor the health of animals: Specimen D could also be used to monitor the health of animals over time, allowing for early detection of any health issues that may arise.

(b) Four activities which require the use of specimen E in animal production are:

1. Artificial insemination: Specimen E could be semen collected from a male animal and used to inseminate a female animal without direct contact.
2. Breeding: Specimen E could also be used in traditional breeding methods, where a male and female animal are mated to produce offspring.
3. Embryo transfer: Specimen E could be an embryo that is transferred from a donor female to a recipient female to increase the number of offspring from a valuable female animal.
4. Genetic testing: Specimen E could also be used for genetic testing to determine an animal's genotype for specific traits.

(c) (i) Three precautions that should be taken by the farmer when using specimen F for the purpose of castration in pigs are:

1. Ensuring the proper use of anesthesia: The use of anesthesia is essential to minimize pain and distress in the animal during the procedure.
2. Proper sanitation: The tools used for castration should be properly sanitized to prevent infection and the spread of diseases.
3. Monitoring the animal after the procedure: The farmer should monitor the animal after the procedure for any signs of pain, infection, or other complications.

(d) Three tools that could be used in place of specimen F for carrying out castration in farm animals are:

1. Burdizzo castrator: A burdizzo castrator is a tool that uses a clamp to crush and rupture the spermatic cords, resulting in the animal's infertility.
2. Emasculator: An emasculator is a tool that is used to crush and cut the spermatic cord, resulting in the animal's infertility.
3. Elastrator: An elastrator is a tool that uses a tight rubber ring to cut off the blood supply to the testicles, causing them to atrophy and fall off over time.

Each of these tools must be used properly and safely, taking into account the animal's size, age, and health status. Additionally, farmers should be trained and experienced in the use of these tools to ensure that the procedure is carried out humanely and without unnecessary pain or suffering for the animal.

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a) Advantages of castration in livestock production include: 1. Improved meat quality: Castration can lead to meat with better taste, texture, and tenderness, which can increase the market value of the animal. 2. Reduced aggression: Castrated animals are often less aggressive and easier to handle, which can improve worker safety and animal welfare. 3. Better feed efficiency: Castrated animals may require less feed to maintain their weight, which can result in lower feed costs for the farmer. 4. Reduced risk of reproductive diseases: Castration can prevent the development of reproductive diseases in male animals, which can reduce the need for veterinary care and increase the lifespan of the animal. 5. Improved herd management: Castration can help farmers better manage their herds by controlling breeding and preventing unwanted pregnancies. Disadvantages of castration in livestock production include: 1. Risk of surgical complications: Castration is a surgical procedure that carries a risk of complications, including infection, bleeding, and even death. 2. Reduced growth rate: Castration can lead to slower growth rates in some animals, which can delay the time to market and reduce profitability. 3. Behavioral changes: Castration can lead to changes in behavior, such as reduced aggressiveness and territoriality, which may affect the animal's ability to defend itself or interact with its environment. b) (i) Parts of the digestive system of a domestic fowl: 1. Beak: The beak is a hard, keratinized structure at the front of the bird's head that is used for pecking, preening, and grasping food. 2. Crop: The crop is an expandable pouch in the bird's esophagus that stores and moistens food before it enters the stomach. 3. Proventriculus: The proventriculus is the glandular part of the bird's stomach that secretes digestive enzymes to break down food. 4. Gizzard: The gizzard is a muscular organ in the bird's digestive system that grinds food into smaller particles with the help of small stones or grit. 5. Cloaca: The cloaca is a common opening at the end of the bird's digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems that is used for excretion and mating. (ii) Functions of the parts labelled in (i): 1. Beak: The beak is used to grasp and manipulate food, as well as for preening and other behaviors. 2. Crop: The crop stores and moistens food before it enters the stomach, which allows the bird to eat quickly and digest food more efficiently. 3. Proventriculus: The proventriculus secretes digestive enzymes that break down food into smaller particles and prepare it for further digestion in the gizzard. 4. Gizzard: The gizzard grinds food into smaller particles with the help of small stones or grit, which allows the bird to extract more nutrients from its food. 5. Cloaca: The cloaca is a common opening for excretion and mating, which allows the bird to efficiently eliminate waste and reproduce.

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(a)

(i) Products that Could bo Obtained from Fresh Milk;

Butter Milk.

- Butter.

-Condensed Milk.

-Ice Cream.

-Cheese.

- Evaporated milk.

-Powdered milk/skimmed milk.

-Yoghurt.-Casein.

(ii) Method of Making Milk Wholesome for Human Consumption;

- Pasteurization/boiling/heating.

-Sterilization/irradiation

(b)

(i) Functions of Gizzard in Farm Animals;

- Helps in grinding of feed.

- Mixes/churns feed.

-Moistens feed.-Stores feed.

(ii) Features of Gizzard which Enables it to Perform its Functions;

- Thick/muscular wall.

-Presence of stone/grits/gastroliths/pebbles.

-Tough/rough lining/coilin layer.

(c) Ways of Preserving Meat;

- Cold blast/refrigeration freezing.

- Salting.-Frying.-Boiling.

-Oven drying/sun drying/drying.

-Smoking/roasting.

-Canning.

(d) Responses of Chicken to;

- Excessive Heat

- Birds tend to move away from the heat source.

- Birds crowd up close to the edge of the brooder house.

- Reduced feed intake.

- Increased water intake.

-Dehydration/panting.

-Death

(ii) Insufficient Heat;

- Crowd close to heat source.

- Stampeding.

-Death/suffocation.

- Curdle together in groups.

- Increase feed intake.

(iii) Optimum Heat;

- Evenly spread out in brooder house.

- Birds are active.

- Eat and drink normally.

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a) During selection of livestock for breeding, five characteristics that are typically considered include: - Productivity: This refers to the animal's ability to produce offspring, milk, meat, eggs, or other products that are desirable for human consumption or use. - Conformation: This refers to the animal's physical shape and structure, including traits such as size, shape, and musculature. - Health: This refers to the animal's overall health and resistance to diseases and other health problems. - Temperament: This refers to the animal's behavior and disposition, including traits such as docility, aggression, or skittishness. - Adaptability: This refers to the animal's ability to adapt to different environments and management practices, such as changes in feed, climate, or housing. b) Five characteristics of Zebu cattle include: - Humped back: Zebu cattle have a distinctive hump of fat and muscle on their shoulders. - Heat tolerance: Zebu cattle are well-adapted to hot and humid climates, thanks to their sweat glands and ability to regulate body temperature. - Disease resistance: Zebu cattle are generally more resistant to diseases and parasites than other breeds of cattle. - Drought tolerance: Zebu cattle are able to survive in areas with limited water and forage resources. - Longevity: Zebu cattle have a longer lifespan than many other breeds of cattle, often living well into their teens or twenties. c) Five functions of water in farm animals include: - Temperature regulation: Water helps animals to regulate their body temperature, especially in hot or humid conditions. - Digestion: Water is essential for the digestion and absorption of nutrients from feed. - Waste elimination: Water helps to flush waste products out of the animal's body through urine and feces. - Milk production: Water is needed for the production of milk in lactating animals. - Hydration: Water is essential for maintaining proper hydration levels in the animal's body. d) Five nutritional disorders in farm animals include: - Vitamin deficiencies: Lack of sufficient vitamins in the animal's diet can lead to a range of health problems, including poor growth, weakened immune system, and reproductive issues. - Mineral deficiencies: Similar to vitamin deficiencies, lack of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, or magnesium can lead to health problems such as weakened bones or poor fertility. - Protein deficiencies: Inadequate protein intake can lead to poor growth, reduced milk production, and other health problems. - Energy deficiencies: Lack of sufficient energy in the animal's diet can lead to weight loss, poor growth, and reduced milk production. - Acidosis: Acidosis is a condition where the pH of the animal's rumen becomes too low, leading to digestive problems and other health issues. This can be caused by a diet that is too high in fermentable carbohydrates such as grain.