WAEC SSCE - Animal Husbandry - 2017

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The incubation period of a chicken egg is 21 days. During this time, the egg is kept warm and humid in an incubator or under a brooding hen. The incubation period is the time it takes for the embryo inside the egg to develop and grow into a chick. During the incubation period, the temperature and humidity levels need to be carefully controlled to ensure proper development of the embryo. If the temperature is too high or too low, or if the humidity levels are not optimal, the embryo may not develop properly or may not hatch at all. On the 21st day of incubation, the chick will begin to "pip," or crack, the shell from the inside using its egg tooth, which is a small protuberance on the beak. After hatching, the chick will continue to rely on a heat source for several weeks until it is able to regulate its body temperature on its own. Overall, the incubation period of a chicken egg is 21 days and is a crucial time for the development of the chick inside.

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The disease that could result from giving animals mouldy food is Aspergillosis. Aspergillosis is a fungal infection caused by the inhalation of spores from the Aspergillus fungus. This fungus can grow on moldy food, particularly grain and hay, which are commonly used as animal feed. When animals eat the moldy food, they can inhale the spores, which can cause damage to their respiratory system and lead to Aspergillosis. Symptoms of Aspergillosis can include respiratory distress, coughing, lethargy, and weight loss. If left untreated, the infection can spread to other parts of the body and become fatal. It is important to properly store and handle animal feed to prevent the growth of mold and reduce the risk of Aspergillosis.

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A cow typically has four teats. Teats are the small projections on the udder of female mammals, such as cows, that secrete milk for their young. Cows are known for their large udders, which can contain up to four mammary glands, one for each quarter of the udder. Each mammary gland has its own teat, which is used to extract milk during milking. Having four teats is the most common arrangement in cows, although some may have extra teats, known as supernumerary teats. These extra teats do not produce as much milk as the regular teats and are often removed to prevent infection or injury to the cow. In summary, a cow typically has four teats, one for each quarter of the udder, which are used to extract milk during milking. While some cows may have extra teats, having four is the most common arrangement.

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In some cases, female animals that are not accepted by their male counterparts could reproduce through a process called artificial insemination. Artificial insemination is the process of introducing sperm into the female reproductive tract without the need for natural mating. The sperm can be collected from a male of the same species and introduced into the female using various methods, such as a syringe or catheter. This can be a useful tool for breeding animals that are difficult to mate naturally or for ensuring that specific genetic traits are passed on to offspring.

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Planting grass-legume mixture has numerous benefits, such as higher productivity of the pasture, suppression of weeds, prevention of soil erosion, and improvement of soil fertility. Therefore, the option that does not include the benefits of planting grass-legume mixture is "decreased soil fertility." Planting a grass-legume mixture can help improve soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen into the soil through the legume component. The nitrogen-fixing capability of legumes helps to provide a natural source of nitrogen to the soil, which can benefit the grass component of the mixture.

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In artificial insemination, semen collected is stored in liquid nitrogen, not ammonia, chlorine, or oxygen. Liquid nitrogen has a very low temperature, which helps to preserve the quality and viability of the sperm cells in the semen sample. This allows the semen to be stored for a longer period of time and used for later insemination procedures, increasing the success rate of the artificial insemination process.

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The identification method that could be used in poultry production is banding. Banding involves attaching a small, numbered plastic or metal band to the bird's leg. The band is usually placed on the bird's right leg, although in some countries it is placed on the left leg. The band serves as a unique identifier for each bird, allowing farmers to keep track of individual birds and monitor their health, growth, and production. Branding and notching are also used as identification methods in some types of livestock, but they are not suitable for poultry because they can cause injury or infection. Tattooing, on the other hand, can be used in poultry production, but it is less common than banding because it requires specialized equipment and training. Tattooing involves placing a small, permanent mark on the bird's skin using ink or a needle. Overall, banding is a simple, safe, and effective method of identifying poultry in commercial production.

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The vector that transmits trypanosomiasis is the tsetse fly. Trypanosomiasis, also known as African sleeping sickness, is a disease caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei, which is transmitted to humans and animals by the tsetse fly. The tsetse fly is found in sub-Saharan Africa and feeds on the blood of mammals, including humans. When the fly bites an infected mammal, it picks up the parasite, which can then be transmitted to the next mammal it bites, including humans. Therefore, the tsetse fly plays a significant role in the transmission and spread of trypanosomiasis.

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The nutrient that is required most for the healthy development of the part labeled I is calcium. Calcium is an essential mineral that is necessary for building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. The part labeled I is likely referring to the skeletal system, which is made up of bones, and these require calcium to grow and develop properly. Without enough calcium, bones can become weak and brittle, which can increase the risk of fractures and other bone-related problems. While the other nutrients listed - fat, protein, and vitamin D - are also important for overall health, they are not as directly linked to bone development and strength as calcium is.

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Digestion in the rumen is mainly microbial. The rumen is the first stomach chamber of ruminants, such as cows, sheep, and goats, where food is broken down by microorganisms, such as bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, that live in the rumen. These microorganisms break down complex carbohydrates and fibrous material in the feed into simpler compounds that can be absorbed and utilized by the animal. This process is known as fermentation, and it produces short-chain fatty acids, which are a major source of energy for the animal. The microbial digestion in the rumen is an essential part of the digestive process of ruminants, and it allows them to extract maximum nutrition from their food.

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The management practice used in the identification of livestock is branding. Branding involves marking animals with a unique symbol or character using heat or freeze branding methods to identify ownership or management of the animal. This method is commonly used in cattle and sheep farming and helps to prevent theft, loss, and ensure proper record-keeping.

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The amount of feed given to a farm animal daily is known as a ration. A ration is the specific amount and combination of feedstuffs given to an animal in a 24-hour period to meet its nutritional needs. The ration may consist of a variety of feedstuffs, such as hay, grains, and supplements, which are mixed in specific proportions to provide the animal with the right balance of nutrients for its age, weight, and production stage. Rations can be formulated to meet the specific nutritional requirements of different farm animals, such as cows, pigs, chickens, and sheep. The goal is to provide the animal with the right amount of energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals to maintain good health and maximize production. In summary, a ration is the amount and combination of feedstuffs given to a farm animal in a 24-hour period to meet its nutritional needs. It is an important aspect of animal husbandry and is tailored to meet the specific nutritional requirements of different species and production stages.

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An example of a non-ruminant herbivore is a horse. Non-ruminant herbivores are animals that have a simple stomach and cannot efficiently digest tough plant materials. Instead, they rely on microbial fermentation that occurs in their large intestine to break down fibrous plant materials. Horses are an example of non-ruminant herbivores as they have a single-chambered stomach and a relatively small, simple cecum (a pouch that connects the small and large intestine) where microbial fermentation occurs. In contrast, ruminant herbivores, such as cattle, sheep, and goats, have a complex, multi-chambered stomach that allows for more efficient fermentation of plant materials. Therefore, horses, being non-ruminant herbivores, have a different digestive system than cattle, sheep, and goats, making them an example of a non-ruminant herbivore.

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An example of a humpless cattle is the N'Dama. N'Dama is a breed of cattle that originated in West Africa, specifically in Guinea, Mali, and Senegal. They are known for their hardiness and resistance to diseases like trypanosomiasis, which makes them suitable for farming in areas with tsetse flies that transmit the disease. Unlike some other breeds of cattle in Africa, N'Dama do not have a hump on their back. Instead, they have a straight back and a more angular body shape. They are typically smaller in size and have a reddish-brown coat color. Overall, N'Dama are valued for their ability to survive in challenging environments, their docile temperament, and their meat and milk production.

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The digestive system determines the type of feed given to an animal. The digestive system is responsible for breaking down food into nutrients that the animal can use for energy, growth, and repair. Different animals have different digestive systems that are adapted to their specific diets. For example, herbivores have longer digestive tracts with specialized organs like the rumen for fermenting plant material, while carnivores have shorter digestive tracts adapted for digesting meat. Therefore, the digestive system is the body system that determines the type of feed given to an animal.

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The plant that is a pasture legume is Puereria phaseoloides. Pasture legumes are plants that are grown specifically for livestock to feed on. They are often used to improve the quality of grazing lands and to provide a more nutritious food source for livestock. Puereria phaseoloides, also known as kudzu, is a type of legume that is commonly used as a pasture plant. It is a fast-growing plant that is able to fix nitrogen from the air, making it a valuable addition to grazing lands as it helps to improve soil fertility. The other plants listed, Panicum maximum, Andropogon gayanus, and Pennistetum purpureum, are not pasture legumes. Panicum maximum is a type of grass that is often used for forage or as a cover crop, while Andropogon gayanus and Pennistetum purpureum are also types of grass that are used for forage or as ornamental plants.

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The system in which a lamb is raised by another ewe is known as fostering. Fostering is a management practice commonly used in sheep farming, whereby a lamb is removed from its biological mother and placed with another ewe that is not its biological mother. The ewe that takes on the lamb acts as a foster mother, providing milk and care for the lamb as if it were her own offspring. This can be necessary if the biological mother has died, has too many lambs to care for, or if a lamb is rejected by its mother. In contrast, rearing refers to the general process of raising young animals, which includes feeding, care, and management until the animal reaches maturity. Weaning refers to the process of gradually transitioning a young animal from its mother's milk to solid food, typically by removing it from the mother's care and feeding it alternative sources of nutrition. Therefore, fostering is the correct term to describe the system in which a lamb is raised by another ewe.

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The disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis in pigs is anthrax. Anthrax is a bacterial disease that commonly affects cattle, sheep, and goats, but can also affect pigs and other animals. It is caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis and is known to be a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans. The symptoms of anthrax in pigs can include fever, depression, difficulty breathing, and sudden death.

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The kidney is the excretory organ that maintains a healthy balance of body fluids in farm animals. The kidney is a vital organ that plays a crucial role in regulating the water balance and removing waste products from the body of farm animals. The kidney filters the blood, removing excess water, salts, and other waste products such as urea and creatinine. These waste products are then excreted in the form of urine. The kidneys also help to regulate the concentration of electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and chloride in the body fluids of farm animals. They are able to adjust the amount of water and electrolytes that are excreted in the urine to maintain a healthy balance. In addition, the kidney plays an important role in maintaining blood pressure and producing hormones that help to stimulate red blood cell production and regulate calcium metabolism. Overall, the kidney is a vital organ in farm animals, ensuring that the body fluids are balanced and that waste products are removed from the body.

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The part labeled I and II are parts of the female reproductive system of birds. The infundibulum is part I and it is the initial portion of the oviduct where the egg is fertilized. It catches the egg from the ovary and provides the sperm with a place to fertilize the egg. The magnum is part II and it is the region of the oviduct where the egg white or albumen is added around the fertilized yolk. This is where the majority of the egg white is added, providing the egg with protein. So, together, the infundibulum and magnum are responsible for fertilization and the addition of the egg white, respectively, in the production of a bird's egg.

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The selection of animals based on the performance of their ancestors is called pedigree selection. Pedigree selection involves examining the ancestry or genealogy of animals to identify those with desirable traits, such as high productivity, disease resistance, or other desired characteristics. In pedigree selection, animals with superior genetic backgrounds or ancestors are chosen for breeding to produce offspring with better genetic potential. This is because desirable traits are often inherited from previous generations, and thus animals with a strong pedigree are more likely to pass on these traits to their offspring. Overall, pedigree selection is an important breeding strategy used to improve the quality of livestock and ensure that desirable traits are passed down to future generations.

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The organ that is influenced by oxytocin is the udder. Oxytocin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that plays a critical role in lactation. It causes the muscles around the mammary glands in the udder to contract, which leads to the ejection of milk. This process is called the milk let-down reflex. Therefore, the correct option is udder.

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The movement of digested feed into the bloodstream is known as absorption. Absorption is the process by which nutrients from digested food are taken up into the bloodstream to be transported to the rest of the body. This occurs in the small intestine, where the digested food is broken down into smaller molecules that can be easily absorbed into the bloodstream. Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into smaller, more easily absorbable molecules. Ingestion is the process of taking food into the body through the mouth. Egestion is the process of removing waste products from the body, typically through defecation. Absorption is an important step in the process of digestion as it allows the body to access the nutrients it needs to function properly. The nutrients are transported through the bloodstream to the cells and tissues where they are used to support growth, repair, and other functions.

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A bull or a buck (male goat) could be used for breeding purposes in a farm animal breeding program. These males have the ability to fertilize female animals and produce offspring. A hog or a bullock (castrated male cattle) cannot be used for breeding purposes as they have been surgically altered and are unable to fertilize female animals. A wether (castrated male sheep) also cannot be used for breeding purposes for the same reason.

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Muscle rigidity and non-responsiveness to stimulus in dead farm animals is known as rigor mortis. This happens due to the depletion of ATP molecules that cause the inability of muscle fibers to relax. As a result, the muscle fibers remain contracted, causing the body to become stiff and rigid. The onset of rigor mortis usually occurs within a few hours after death and can last for up to 48 hours, after which it gradually disappears due to the breakdown of muscle tissues.

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Anaemia is a condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells or haemoglobin in the blood, which can lead to weakness, fatigue, and other health problems. In farm animals, anaemia is commonly caused by iron deficiency. Iron is an essential mineral that plays a key role in the formation of red blood cells and haemoglobin, which carry oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues. When an animal does not get enough iron in its diet, it cannot produce enough red blood cells, leading to anaemia. This can happen if the animal is not getting enough iron-rich feed or if its body is not absorbing iron properly. In addition to iron deficiency, other factors can contribute to anaemia in farm animals, including parasitic infections, chronic disease, and genetic disorders. However, iron deficiency is one of the most common causes of anaemia in livestock and can be prevented through proper nutrition and management practices. In summary, anaemia in farm animals is caused by a deficiency of red blood cells or haemoglobin in the blood, often due to inadequate iron intake. Iron deficiency can be prevented by providing animals with a balanced diet that includes sufficient iron-rich feed and managing their health and nutrition to prevent parasitic infections and other underlying conditions.

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The estrus cycle in the ewe occurs every 17-21 days. The estrus cycle, also known as the reproductive cycle, is the recurring process of sexual readiness and fertility in female animals. In the ewe, the estrus cycle lasts an average of 17-21 days, but can range from 14-19 days in some cases. During this time, the ewe undergoes several hormonal changes that prepare her body for mating and potential pregnancy. The estrus cycle is divided into four stages: proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus. During estrus, which lasts for approximately 30 hours, the ewe exhibits physical signs of sexual readiness such as restlessness, mounting other animals, and vocalization. This is the optimal time for breeding, as the ewe is most likely to conceive during this stage. In summary, the estrus cycle in the ewe occurs every 17-21 days, and during this time, the ewe undergoes hormonal changes that prepare her for mating and potential pregnancy. Estrus, the optimal time for breeding, lasts for approximately 30 hours.

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Foot and mouth disease in sheep is caused by a virus. The foot and mouth disease virus affects many cloven-hoofed animals, including sheep, cattle, pigs, and deer. The virus is highly contagious and can be spread through direct contact with infected animals, or through contact with contaminated equipment or surfaces. Symptoms of foot and mouth disease in sheep can include fever, lameness, blisters on the mouth, tongue, and feet, and a loss of appetite. The disease can also cause weight loss and reduced milk production in dairy sheep. There is currently no cure for foot and mouth disease, and the best way to prevent its spread is through strict biosecurity measures, such as quarantining infected animals, disinfecting equipment and facilities, and limiting the movement of animals in and out of infected areas. Overall, foot and mouth disease is a serious viral disease that can affect sheep and other cloven-hoofed animals, and strict biosecurity measures are important in preventing its spread.

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The wilting of lush green forage is done to prevent Bloat in ruminants. Bloat is a condition that occurs when gas accumulates in the rumen (stomach) of ruminants, such as cows or sheep, and cannot be expelled. This can cause discomfort, difficulty breathing, and even death in severe cases. When fresh forage is consumed, it contains a lot of moisture and can produce excessive amounts of gas during fermentation in the rumen. This gas can cause the rumen to distend, making it difficult for the animal to breathe and leading to bloat. Wilted forage, on the other hand, has a lower moisture content and therefore produces less gas during fermentation in the rumen. This reduces the risk of bloat and makes it safer for ruminants to consume. In summary, the wilting of lush green forage is done to prevent bloat in ruminants by reducing the amount of gas produced during fermentation in the rumen.

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(a) Definition of digestion

Digestion is the process by which large, complex, insoluble food substances are broken down (mechanically and chemically by enzymes) into simple, soluble and absorbable forms in the alimentary canal of the animal.

(b) Four differences between the digestive systems of a chicken and a goat

(c) Five methods of improving rangeland

• Controlled/rotational grazing.
• Reseeding with improved forage species.
• Application of fertilizer or manure.
• Weed control.
• Irrigation and controlled burning.

(d) End product of digestion of each nutrient

• (i) Carbohydrate: glucose (simple sugars).
• (ii) Protein: amino acids.
• (iii) Fat and oil: fatty acids and glycerol.

(e) Four functions of proteins in farm animals

• Growth and building of body tissues.
• Repair of worn-out tissues.
• Formation of enzymes and hormones.
• Production of antibodies for immunity (and of milk and eggs).

(f) Two digestive enzymes found in the small intestine of a pig

• Trypsin
• Lipase (also maltase and pancreatic amylase)

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(a) Three reasons for keeping goats

• For the production of meat (chevon), which is a valuable source of animal protein.
• For the production of milk, especially from dairy breeds such as the West African Dwarf and Saanen.
• For the production of skin and hair, and for the sale of animals to earn income.

(b) i. Definition of oestrus

Oestrus (heat) is the period during the reproductive cycle when a female farm animal is sexually receptive and willing to accept the male for mating, and during which ovulation normally occurs.

(b) ii. Three signs of heat in a sow

• Swelling and reddening of the vulva.
• Restlessness with frequent mounting of, or standing to be mounted by, other pigs.
• A mucous discharge from the vulva and the standing (immobility) reflex when pressure is applied to the back.

(c) Completed table

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(a) Four functions of carbohydrates in farm animals

• Provide energy and heat for body activities.
• Excess is stored as fat (reserve energy) and glycogen.
• Spare protein so that it is used for growth rather than energy.
• Provide raw material for the formation of fat and milk.

(b) Four organs associated with respiration

• Nostrils/nose
• Trachea (windpipe)
• Bronchi
• Lungs (also air sacs in birds and the diaphragm)

(c) Two diseases that affect the respiratory system

• Pneumonia
• Chronic respiratory disease (CRD), also infectious bronchitis and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP)

(d) Definitions of terms used in animal physiology

• (i) Exhalation: the breathing out or expulsion of air (rich in carbon dioxide) from the lungs to the atmosphere.
• (ii) Inhalation: the breathing in or taking in of air (rich in oxygen) from the atmosphere into the lungs.
• (iii) Peristalsis: the wave-like rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the muscles of the alimentary canal that moves food along the gut.
• (iv) Ovulation: the release of a mature ovum (egg) from the ovary.
• (v) Rumination: the regurgitation, re-chewing and re-swallowing of cud by a ruminant animal.

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(a) Definition of animal improvement

Animal improvement is the application of scientific principles and techniques (mainly selection and breeding) to develop farm animals with more desirable/superior qualities such as higher yield, faster growth and disease resistance from one generation to the next.

(b)(i) Meaning of introduction

Introduction is the bringing in of animals of superior/improved breeds from another place or country into a new environment in order to improve the local stock or for production.

(b)(ii) Advantages and disadvantages of introduction

Three advantages:

• It is quicker/faster than developing a breed through breeding.
• It brings in superior, high-yielding breeds.
• It may introduce disease-resistant breeds and saves the cost of local breed development.

Three disadvantages:

• Introduced breeds may fail to adapt to the new climate/environment.
• They may introduce new diseases and pests.
• Importation is expensive and the breeds may not perform as expected without special management.

(c)(i) Definition of progeny selection

Progeny selection is the selection of breeding animals based on the performance/qualities of their offspring (progeny) rather than on the individual animal's own performance.

(c)(ii) Five desirable characteristics used in selecting animals for improvement

• High productivity (milk, meat or egg yield).
• Fast growth rate.
• Disease resistance.
• High fertility/prolificacy.
• Good feed conversion efficiency and good body conformation.

(d) Three advantages of artificial insemination

• A single superior sire can serve many females.
• It controls the spread of breeding diseases.
• Semen can be stored and transported over long distances, reducing the cost of keeping males.

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(a) Three management systems in farm animal production

• Extensive system
• Semi-intensive system
• Intensive system

(b) Three ways in which housing is important

• Protects animals from adverse weather (rain, sun and cold).
• Protects animals from predators and thieves.
• Eases management (feeding, cleaning, medication and record keeping) and prevents animals from wandering.

(c) Four advantages of each system

(i) Deep litter:

• Requires less labour to manage.
• Birds have room to exercise, reducing boredom.
• The litter provides warmth and vitamin B and can later be used as manure.
• Cheaper to construct than cages.

(ii) Battery cage:

• Allows efficient use of space (high stocking density).
• Poor layers are easily identified and removed.
• Eggs are clean and rarely soiled or broken.
• Reduces cannibalism/egg eating and eases disease and parasite control.

(d) Three features of a suitable housing unit for rearing

(i) Snails:

• Moist/humid environment with loose, well-drained soil.
• Shaded/covered from direct sunlight.
• Escape-proof and protected from pests.

(ii) Grasscutter:

• Strong, escape-proof pen.
• Dry and well ventilated.
• Easy to clean and protected from predators, with hiding/nesting space.

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(a) Six causes of low egg production in chicken

• Poor feeding/inadequate nutrition (especially low calcium).
• Diseases and parasite infestation.
• Poor breed/inferior genetic make-up.
• Old age of the laying birds.
• Stress from heat, noise or rough handling.
• Inadequate lighting/short day length and overcrowding.

(b) Three parts of the digestive system of pigs

• Mouth
• Stomach
• Small intestine (also oesophagus, large intestine and anus)

(c) Six ways in which cattle production is important in West Africa

• Source of meat (beef) for food.
• Source of milk and milk products.
• Source of income and foreign exchange.
• Source of hides and skin for industry.
• Provide manure for crop production and draught (work) power.
• Source of employment and a means of savings/wealth.

(d) Five uses of poultry eggs

• Source of food rich in protein.
• For hatching to produce chicks.
• Raw material in baking and confectionery.
• Used in vaccine production.
• Used in cosmetics/pharmaceuticals and as a source of income.