WAEC SSCE - Commerce - 2001

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The act of keeping products in good condition until they are needed is called warehousing. Warehousing is the process of storing goods in a designated location, known as a warehouse, until they are needed. Warehouses are designed to keep products in good condition, with proper storage and handling to prevent damage, spoilage, or theft. Warehousing is an essential part of the supply chain for many businesses, as it allows them to maintain an inventory of goods that can be quickly and easily accessed when needed. This can help businesses to ensure that they always have the products they need on hand, without having to rely on just-in-time delivery or other methods that may be less reliable. Overall, warehousing is an important aspect of logistics and supply chain management, helping businesses to store and manage their inventory in a way that is safe, efficient, and cost-effective.

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The portion of the authorized capital that is made available for the public to buy and actually subscribed for by them is called issued capital. In other words, issued capital refers to the total number of shares that have been allotted to the shareholders of a company, whether they are fully paid or not. It is the amount of the company's capital that has been issued and is in the hands of the shareholders, whereas authorized capital is the maximum amount of capital that a company is legally allowed to issue. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is "issued capital."

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The greatest advantage of air transport over all other means of transport is its speed. Air transport is by far the fastest means of transportation, allowing people and goods to travel quickly and efficiently over long distances. This makes it ideal for urgent or time-sensitive deliveries, as well as for passenger travel. Compared to other means of transport, such as sea or land transport, air transport can cover much greater distances in a shorter amount of time. This means that products can be delivered faster, and people can reach their destinations more quickly. In addition to speed, air transport also offers other advantages, such as flexibility and safety. Because airplanes can take off and land at airports all over the world, they offer a high degree of flexibility in terms of routing and scheduling. And while there are some safety risks associated with air travel, modern airplanes are designed to be extremely safe and are subject to rigorous safety standards and regulations.

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The marketing function involves a set of activities that a company performs to promote the buying or selling of a product or service. Out of the given options, insurance is not a marketing function. Insurance is a financial product/service offered by companies to mitigate risks associated with events like accidents, theft, and natural calamities. Though insurance can be considered an important part of a business's overall risk management strategy, it is not directly related to the promotion or selling of a product/service, which is the main focus of marketing.

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The correct term for a bundle of shares is "stock". A stock represents ownership in a company and is bought and sold on stock exchanges. When an investor purchases a stock, they own a portion of the company and may be entitled to vote on certain company decisions and receive dividends. Stocks can be issued in different classes, each with their own set of rights and privileges.

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A speculator on the stock exchange market who sells securities for the fear of a fall in their prices is called a "bear". This term comes from the way a bear swipes its paws downward to attack, as if pushing prices down. In the stock market, a bear is someone who expects the price of a particular stock or the market as a whole to decline, and therefore sells securities or bets against them. This is often done by short selling, which involves borrowing and selling securities, hoping to buy them back at a lower price to make a profit.

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A tanker is a specially designed container used to convey crude oil or other liquids from one location to another. It is specifically designed to transport large quantities of liquids, typically petroleum products, in bulk. Tankers are usually built with a cylindrical hull and have several compartments to accommodate different types of liquids. They are an important part of the shipping industry and are used to transport crude oil, gasoline, diesel, and other liquid cargo across long distances. Tankers are also equipped with advanced safety features to prevent spills or leaks of the cargo, ensuring the protection of the environment and the crew on board.

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The exchange of goods for goods in foreign trade is known as counter trade. Counter trade is a type of international trade where goods and services are exchanged for other goods and services instead of currency. In other words, instead of paying for imports with cash, the importing country offers exports in exchange for the imports. This type of trade is common in countries where foreign currency is scarce, or where the country's currency is not widely accepted in international trade. Counter trade can take many forms, including barter, offset, and buyback arrangements. In a barter arrangement, goods are exchanged directly between the two countries, while in an offset arrangement, the importing country agrees to buy a certain amount of goods or services from the exporting country in exchange for the imports. In a buyback arrangement, the exporting country agrees to invest in the importing country in exchange for the imports. Counter trade can be a useful way for countries to conduct international trade when traditional currency-based transactions are not possible. However, it can also be complex and difficult to manage, particularly when there are differences in the value of the goods and services being exchanged.

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Increasing imports is not used to correct an adverse balance of payment. An adverse balance of payment occurs when a country's imports exceed its exports over a given period, meaning the country is spending more on foreign goods and services than it is earning through its own exports. To correct an adverse balance of payment, a country can take several measures to reduce its imports, increase its exports, or both. Increasing exports and decreasing imports are both effective ways to improve a country's balance of payment. By increasing exports, a country earns more foreign currency and by decreasing imports, it spends less foreign currency, both of which can help to correct an adverse balance of payment. Devaluation is another measure that can be used to correct an adverse balance of payment. It involves reducing the value of a country's currency relative to other currencies, which makes the country's exports cheaper and more attractive to foreign buyers and imports more expensive for domestic buyers, thereby reducing imports. In contrast, increasing imports would only worsen an adverse balance of payment, as it would increase the outflow of foreign currency and further exacerbate the trade deficit. Therefore, increasing imports is not used to correct an adverse balance of payment.

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The abbreviation "E & O.E" indicates that the seller reserves the right to correct errors on the invoice. "E & O.E" stands for "Errors and Omissions Excepted," meaning that if there are any mistakes or omissions in the invoice, the seller has the right to correct them without any liability. This abbreviation is commonly used in commercial and legal documents to limit the seller's liability for errors or omissions in the document.

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The business that must have at least one member with unlimited liability is a limited partnership. In a limited partnership, there are two types of partners: general partners who have unlimited liability, and limited partners who have limited liability. The limited partners are not personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business, but they also do not have as much control over the business as the general partners do. Therefore, at least one member must be a general partner with unlimited liability in order to ensure that the business can fulfill its obligations.

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An agent who takes possession of goods and sells them in his own name is known as a factor. A factor is a type of agent who acts on behalf of a seller, taking possession of goods and selling them on to buyers in their own name, rather than simply acting as an intermediary between the buyer and seller. Factors are often used in the textile and clothing industries, where they purchase goods from manufacturers and sell them on to retailers, taking a commission on the sale. Factors may also provide financing to their clients, advancing them cash against the value of their accounts receivable or inventory. The factor's role is to facilitate the sale of goods and to manage the associated risks, such as credit risk and inventory risk. Factors are typically paid a commission based on the value of the goods sold, and may also earn interest or fees for financing services provided to their clients.

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When a bill is paid before its date at a lesser value, it is discounted. This means that the holder of the bill, usually a bank, will pay the bill's value to the bill's holder before its due date, but at a reduced rate. The reduced rate is usually calculated based on the time left before the bill's due date, the value of the bill, and a discount rate agreed upon by the parties involved. For example, if a bill worth $1,000 with a 10% discount rate is due in 60 days, the holder of the bill may choose to discount it after 30 days. The bank would then pay the holder a discounted value of, say, $950, which is $1,000 less 10% of $1,000. By discounting the bill, the holder gets cash in hand before the due date, while the bank earns a profit by receiving the full value of the bill on its due date.

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One feature of sole proprietorship is limited capital. This means that the business is owned and run by a single individual who contributes all the capital necessary to start and operate the business. As such, the amount of capital available to the business is limited to the resources of the owner. Unlike corporations, sole proprietorships are not able to issue shares or seek investments from external sources to raise capital. This also means that the owner assumes full responsibility for any debts or obligations incurred by the business, as there is no separate legal entity for the business.

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The expert who calculates the premium for an insurance policy is an actuary. Actuaries are professionals who use statistical and financial analysis to evaluate the likelihood of risks and uncertainties associated with insurance policies. They analyze data, assess risks, and calculate the premiums that are charged to policyholders. Actuaries use a variety of mathematical and statistical techniques to make these calculations, taking into account factors such as the age, health, and lifestyle of the policyholder, as well as the type and level of coverage requested. The role of an actuary is essential to the insurance industry, as they help ensure that premiums accurately reflect the risk associated with a particular policy. This helps to ensure that insurance companies can remain financially stable and able to meet their obligations to policyholders.

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The option used to advertise a company is a prospectus. A prospectus is a legal document that a company uses to advertise and provide information about its shares or securities to the public. It contains details about the company's financial performance, management, operations, and risks involved in investing in the company. The prospectus serves as a key marketing tool for the company, as it helps to attract potential investors and raise capital for the company's business activities. It is a formal document that is required to be registered with the relevant regulatory authority before shares can be offered to the public. The prospectus contains important information that potential investors need to make informed decisions about investing in the company. It helps to build investor confidence by providing transparency and accountability about the company's financial and operational status. In summary, a prospectus is used to advertise a company to the public and provide information about its shares or securities. It is a legal document that contains details about the company's financial performance, management, operations, and risks involved in investing in the company. It serves as a marketing tool to attract potential investors and raise capital for the company's business activities.

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A person who decides what to produce and combines the other factors of production is an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur is an individual who identifies a need or an opportunity in the market and takes the necessary steps to create a business venture that satisfies that need or takes advantage of that opportunity. The entrepreneur is responsible for bringing together the other factors of production, such as land, labor, and capital, and for making decisions about how to allocate those resources in the most efficient and effective way possible. The entrepreneur takes on the risks and rewards of the business venture, and must be able to adapt and innovate in response to changes in the market or shifts in consumer demand. In short, an entrepreneur is someone who creates and runs a business venture, combining the other factors of production to create goods or services that meet a market need or demand.

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The term that means restoring the issue to the position he was just before the loss occurred is called "Indemnity." Indemnity means compensation for any loss or damage sustained by a person. When a person suffers a loss or damage due to an insured risk, the insurer compensates him for the actual loss suffered, not exceeding the amount insured, and thus restores him to his original position before the loss. It is an essential feature of insurance contracts that the insured should be indemnified to the extent of his actual loss, and not more than that.

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A business firm which controls more than half of another firm's equity is known as a holding company. In other words, a holding company is a type of business organization that owns a controlling interest in one or more other companies. The holding company does not usually engage in day-to-day operations of the companies it controls, but rather holds their assets and manages their investments. The purpose of a holding company is typically to gain control over other companies, diversify investments, and potentially access tax benefits or other advantages.

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The number of times the average stock of a business is sold within a given period is known as the rate of turnover. It indicates how quickly a business is able to sell its stock or inventory. The rate of turnover is calculated by dividing the cost of goods sold by the average stock of a business. A high rate of turnover is generally desirable as it suggests that a business is efficiently managing its stock and generating sales. Conversely, a low rate of turnover could indicate that a business is carrying too much stock, experiencing slow sales, or inefficiently managing its inventory.

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The authority given to a bank to make regular payments on behalf of a customer for a specified purpose is known as a standing order. This is an instruction given by the customer to the bank to pay a fixed amount of money at regular intervals, such as weekly or monthly, to a specific recipient or account. Standing orders are typically used to make recurring payments such as rent, mortgage payments, or utility bills. Once a standing order is set up, the bank automatically transfers the specified amount from the customer's account to the recipient's account on the agreed-upon dates. A standing order is different from a bank draft, which is a payment method that involves the bank issuing a check on behalf of the customer, and a credit transfer, which is a one-time electronic transfer of funds between accounts. A certified cheque is a type of cheque that is guaranteed by the bank, and the funds are set aside to cover it. In summary, a standing order is an authorization given by a customer to a bank to make regular payments on their behalf for a specific purpose, such as paying bills or rent, and it is different from other payment methods like bank drafts, credit transfers, and certified cheques.

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An association of businessmen including manufacturers, traders, bankers, and people engaged in business in an area is known as a Chamber of Commerce. A Chamber of Commerce is a type of business organization that is formed by a group of businesspeople in a particular geographical area. The purpose of a Chamber of Commerce is to promote the interests of local businesses and to improve the economic climate in the area. Chambers of Commerce may provide a range of services to their members, including networking opportunities, advocacy on behalf of local businesses, and educational programs. Chambers of Commerce may also work closely with local government agencies and other organizations to promote economic development in the area. They may be involved in activities such as attracting new businesses to the area, supporting local entrepreneurs, and advocating for policies that benefit local businesses. Overall, Chambers of Commerce play an important role in supporting the growth and success of businesses in their local communities. They provide a platform for businesspeople to connect with each other, to promote their businesses, and to work together to achieve common goals.

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Product pricing, distribution, and promotions are elements of the marketing mix. The marketing mix refers to the set of tactical tools that a company uses to promote its products or services to its target market. It is also known as the four Ps of marketing, which are product, price, place (distribution), and promotion. Product pricing is the process of determining the appropriate price for a product or service. It involves analyzing factors such as production costs, competition, and consumer demand to set a price that is attractive to customers and profitable for the company. Distribution (or place) refers to the process of getting the product to the customer. It includes decisions about which channels of distribution to use (e.g. direct or indirect), where to locate distribution centers, and how to transport and store the product. Promotion includes all the activities that a company uses to communicate the value of its product or service to its customers. This can include advertising, personal selling, sales promotion, and public relations. Together, product pricing, distribution, and promotions make up the marketing mix, which is a crucial component of a company's overall marketing strategy.

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The mark-up of a retailer represents the gross profit earned on a product, expressed as a percentage of the cost price. In simpler terms, it is the amount by which the retailer increases the cost price of a product in order to earn a profit. For example, if a retailer buys a product for $50 and adds a markup of 25%, the selling price will be $62.50 ($50 + 25% of $50). The mark-up, in this case, is 25%. The mark-up is not the same as net profit or gross profit. Gross profit is the difference between revenue and the cost of goods sold, while net profit is the profit earned after all expenses, including taxes and overheads, have been subtracted from revenue. Opening stock refers to the inventory a business has at the beginning of a period, while closing stock refers to the inventory at the end of the period. In summary, mark-up is the percentage by which a retailer increases the cost price of a product to earn a profit, while gross profit, net profit, opening stock, and closing stock are different accounting concepts that are not directly related to mark-up.

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The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is a regional economic union of fifteen West African countries. Its main objectives include expanding trade among member states, encouraging free movement of persons, improving infrastructure, and promoting economic cooperation. Therefore, the option that is not an objective of ECOWAS is "promoting a common language." While language may be a factor in promoting regional integration, it is not specifically listed among the objectives of ECOWAS.

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The people who are involved in exploiting natural resources, such as mining, logging, or drilling for oil, are engaged in an "extractive occupation." They extract or remove natural resources from the earth for commercial purposes, rather than building or creating something new (constructive occupation), selling goods or services (commercial occupation), or transforming raw materials into finished products (manufacturing occupation).

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Selling one line of goods is not a feature of a department store. A department store is a large retail establishment that offers a wide variety of goods and services, often organized into separate departments for different types of products. One of the key features of a department store is that it offers a diverse range of products under one roof, from clothing and accessories to home goods and electronics. In addition, department stores are typically located in prime retail locations, such as in the center of a city or in a shopping mall. They often have attractive layouts and displays to showcase their products and make it easy for customers to navigate the store and find what they are looking for. Bulk buying is also a feature of department stores, as they purchase large quantities of goods from manufacturers and distributors in order to offer competitive prices to their customers. Therefore, selling only one line of goods would not be a feature of a department store, as the store is intended to offer a wide variety of products to appeal to a broad range of customers.

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Branding is an aspect of the marketing mix that is associated with the "product". It refers to the process of creating a unique name, symbol, or design that identifies and differentiates a product or service from those of other companies. Branding helps to establish the identity and personality of a product or service and helps to build a loyal customer base. It involves creating a positive image in the minds of customers through various marketing techniques such as advertising, packaging, and promotions. By creating a strong brand, companies can increase their market share and improve their profitability.

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An example of itinerant trading is selling from a mobile shop or a stall. Itinerant trading refers to the practice of selling goods by moving from one place to another, rather than having a fixed location for the business. Mobile shops, food trucks, and market stalls are examples of itinerant trading businesses. The primary characteristic of itinerant trading is that the business is not stationary and can move to different locations to sell its goods or services. It is a flexible business model that allows the trader to target different markets and customer segments, and it is commonly used by small-scale entrepreneurs and vendors.

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Agriculture operative banks are best classified under specialized banks. These are banks that are established to cater to specific sectors or segments of the economy, such as agriculture, industry, or export-import. Agriculture operative banks, also known as cooperative banks, are financial institutions that are owned and controlled by their members, who are usually farmers or rural residents. These banks provide a range of financial services, such as loans, deposits, and insurance, to support agricultural activities and rural development. They typically offer lower interest rates on loans and higher interest rates on deposits than commercial banks, making them more accessible and affordable for small farmers and rural residents. Specialized banks like agriculture operative banks play a crucial role in promoting economic growth and development in specific sectors of the economy. They are better equipped to understand the needs and challenges of their target customers and provide customized financial products and services to meet those needs. In summary, agriculture operative banks are best classified under specialized banks, which are financial institutions that are established to cater to specific sectors or segments of the economy. These banks provide customized financial services to support the growth and development of the targeted sector, and they are owned and controlled by their members.

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All human efforts geared towards the production of goods and services is called labour. Labour refers to the physical and mental work that people do to create goods and services. It includes all types of human effort, from manual labor to intellectual work, and is an essential factor of production. Entrepreneurship, capital, and occupation are also important factors of production, but they are not the same as labor. Entrepreneurship refers to the process of creating a new business or venture, taking risks, and innovating to bring new products or services to the market. Capital refers to the resources, such as money, equipment, and buildings, that are used to produce goods and services. Occupation refers to a person's job or profession, which may involve various types of labor, entrepreneurship, or capital. In summary, all human efforts geared towards the production of goods and services, such as physical and mental work, are referred to as labour.

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(a) The scope of commerce (illustrated with a diagram)

Commerce is that branch of business concerned with the buying and selling of goods and services together with all the services that assist in getting those goods from the producer to the final consumer. Its scope is divided into two main branches: Trade and the Aids to Trade. The chart below illustrates the full scope.

From the diagram, the scope of commerce covers:

• Trade - the actual buying and selling of goods. It is sub-divided into Home (internal) trade, made up of wholesale and retail trade carried on within a country, and Foreign (external) trade, made up of import, export and entrepôt (re-export) trade carried on between countries.
• Aids to Trade - the services that support and make trade possible, namely transportation, banking (finance), insurance, warehousing (storage), advertising and communication.

(b) Four commercial activities that facilitate buying and selling

1. Transportation: It facilitates the movement of goods and services from the point of production to the wholesalers, retailers and consumers where they are needed, so that goods are available for sale at the right place.
2. Insurance: It reduces and covers the risks associated with the production and distribution of goods, such as fire, theft and loss in transit, giving traders the confidence to buy and sell in larger quantities.
3. Advertising: It helps to create awareness about the existence, qualities and prices of goods and services, thereby persuading buyers and increasing the volume of sales.
4. Warehousing (storage): It provides safe storage of goods until they are needed, bridging the time gap between production and sale and making it possible for production to continue ahead of demand.

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(a) Four factors that determine the choice of transport

1. Nature of the goods: perishable, fragile or bulky goods require particular means of carriage.
2. Cost of transport: the businessman compares the freight charges of the different means and chooses the most economical.
3. Distance and destination: long-distance or overseas movement may need rail, ship or air, while short distances suit road transport.
4. Speed and urgency: where goods are needed quickly, a faster means such as air or road is preferred.

(Others acceptable: safety/security of goods, availability of the means, value of the goods.)

(b) Four advantages of road transport over rail transport

1. Road transport offers a door-to-door service, delivering goods directly from seller to buyer without transhipment.
2. It is more flexible, as vehicles can reach interior areas not served by railway lines.
3. It is more suitable and cheaper for short distances and small loads.
4. It saves loading and unloading time, reducing the risk of damage and delay.

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(a) Six reasons for government participation in business enterprises

1. Provision of essential services: Government participates in order to provide basic and social services such as water, electricity, health and education that private investors may neglect because they are not very profitable.
2. Provision of capital-intensive projects: Some ventures such as railways, refineries, steel and power plants require huge capital and long payback periods beyond the reach of private individuals, so government undertakes them.
3. Prevention of exploitation and monopoly: By owning or regulating key industries, government checks the exploitation of consumers by private monopolists through high prices and poor quality.
4. Creation of employment: Public enterprises create job opportunities and help reduce unemployment in the economy.
5. Control of strategic and sensitive sectors: For reasons of national security and public interest, government keeps control of sectors such as defence, currency printing and telecommunications.
6. Promotion of economic development and even development: Government invests in businesses to accelerate growth, develop rural and backward areas, and correct regional imbalances that private investors ignore.

(b) Four demerits of government participation in business enterprises

1. Inefficiency and mismanagement: Public enterprises are often poorly managed, wasteful and unprofitable because officials lack the profit motive that drives private owners.
2. Bureaucracy and red tape: Excessive rules and delays in decision-making slow down operations and reduce productivity.
3. Political interference and corruption: Appointments and decisions are influenced by politics rather than merit, leading to corruption and diversion of funds.
4. Financial burden on government: Loss-making public enterprises drain public funds through subsidies and bailouts, diverting money from other important projects.

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(a) Four rights of an unpaid seller of goods

An unpaid seller is one who has not received the whole of the price, or whose bill/cheque has been dishonoured. His rights are:

1. Right of lien: to retain possession of the goods until the price is paid, where the goods are still in his hands.
2. Right of stoppage in transit: where the buyer becomes insolvent, to stop the goods while they are still in the hands of a carrier and regain possession of them.
3. Right of resale: to resell the goods to another buyer where they are perishable or where the original buyer defaults after notice.
4. Right to sue for the price (or for damages): to take legal action against the buyer to recover the price or damages for non-acceptance.

(b) Six duties of an agent to the principal

1. To carry out the lawful instructions of the principal faithfully.
2. To act in good faith and in the best interest of the principal.
3. To exercise reasonable care, skill and diligence in performing his duties.
4. To render proper accounts of all money and transactions to the principal.
5. Not to disclose confidential information or make secret profit from the agency.
6. To perform the work personally and not delegate without authority.

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(a) Persuasive advertising

Persuasive advertising is advertising which tries to convince people to buy and use a particular product or service, whether or not they need it at that particular time. It appeals to consumers’ desires and may encourage impulse buying.

(b) Informative advertising

Informative advertising is advertising which creates awareness about the existence of goods or services. It gives facts about the product, including its uses, features, price and where it can be obtained.

(c) Competitive advertising

Competitive advertising is advertising which seeks to create more market for a product or service at the expense of a close substitute. It states or shows that one product is better than competing products.

(d) Mass advertising

Mass advertising refers to joint advertising organised by producers and distributors of similar products. The producers of similar goods come together to advertise their products in order to reduce waste and cut the cost of advertising, resources and energy.

(e) Direct advertising

Direct advertising is selective advertising in which the message is sent to persons who are likely to buy the product or service. It is directed at a specific target market, for example advertising cosmetics in women’s magazines.

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A mail order business is a form of retail trade in which goods are sold and delivered to customers through the post office or courier services, based on orders placed by mail, catalogue, telephone or the internet, without the buyer and seller meeting face to face.

(a) Six distinguishing features of a mail order business

1. No physical shop or showroom: Trading is conducted from a warehouse or office; the trader does not maintain expensive retail premises in the town centre.
2. Use of catalogues and advertisements: The business relies on illustrated catalogues, price lists, newspaper and magazine advertisements to display goods to distant customers.
3. Reliance on the postal and courier system: Orders are received and goods are dispatched mainly through the post office or courier companies, so no direct contact between buyer and seller is needed.
4. Wide geographical coverage: Customers spread over towns, villages and even other countries can be served from a single central location.
5. Cash with order or on delivery: Payment is usually made in advance with the order, on cash on delivery (C.O.D.) terms, or through money orders and bank transfers.
6. Goods are inspected only after delivery: The buyer selects from pictures and descriptions and can inspect the actual goods only when they arrive, often with a right to return unsatisfactory items.

(b) Four disadvantages of a mail order business

1. No prior inspection of goods: The customer buys on the strength of pictures and descriptions and may receive goods that differ from expectations.
2. Delay in delivery: Reliance on the postal or courier system can cause long waiting periods, and goods may be lost or damaged in transit.
3. High cost of advertising and postage: Printing catalogues, advertising and paying postage add heavily to costs, which raise the final price.
4. Unsuitable for perishables and illiterate customers: Perishable goods spoil in transit, and customers who cannot read catalogues or fill order forms are excluded; risk of fraud and bad debts is also high.

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None

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(a) Difference between Hire Purchase and Credit Sale

(b) Four advantages of hire purchase

(i) To a seller

• It increases sales because customers who cannot pay in full at once are still able to buy.
• He earns extra income, since the total hire-purchase price includes interest and is higher than the cash price.
• The goods remain his property until fully paid, so he can repossess them if the buyer fails to pay, reducing his risk.
• It helps him to attract and retain more customers and dispose of stock quickly.

(ii) To a buyer

• He can obtain and use goods immediately without paying the full price at once.
• He pays gradually in convenient instalments out of his income, easing the burden.
• He can acquire expensive items such as machinery or vehicles that he could not afford to buy outright.
• The use of the goods (for example a machine or vehicle) can help him earn the money used to pay the instalments.

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(a) What is a bill of lading?

A bill of lading is a document issued by a shipping company (or its agent) to the exporter acknowledging that the goods described in it have been received on board a named ship for carriage to a stated destination. It serves three purposes: it is a receipt for the goods shipped, evidence of the contract of carriage, and a document of title to the goods, so that whoever holds it can claim the goods at the port of destination.

(b) Six contents of a bill of lading

1. Name of the shipping company and the name of the ship.
2. Name of the shipper (exporter) and the consignee.
3. Description of the goods, including quantity, weight and marks.
4. Port of loading and port of destination.
5. Amount of freight charges and whether paid or payable.
6. Date of shipment and signature of the ship's master or agent.

(c) Clean bill of lading versus foul bill of lading

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(a) Calculations

(i) Current assets are the short-lived assets: Stocks, Debtors and Cash in hand.

\[ \text{Current assets} = 38{,}000 + 25{,}000 + 10{,}000 = 73{,}000 \]

(ii) Current liabilities are the short-term debts: Creditors and Bank overdraft.

\[ \text{Current liabilities} = 30{,}000 + 5{,}000 = 35{,}000 \]

(iii) Working capital

\[ \text{Working capital} = \text{Current assets} - \text{Current liabilities} = 73{,}000 - 35{,}000 = 38{,}000 \]

(b) What is a current asset?

A current asset is an asset that is held for a short period (usually less than one year) and is either cash or can readily be converted into cash in the ordinary course of business, for example stock, debtors and cash.

(c) One significance

Current assets provide the ready funds needed to meet short-term obligations and to keep the business running smoothly from day to day.