WAEC SSCE - Government - 2012

Bayanin Amsa

Restricted franchise violates the idea of political equality. Political equality is the principle that all citizens should have equal political rights and opportunities. When the right to vote is restricted based on factors such as race, gender, wealth, or education, it violates political equality because it gives some individuals or groups greater political power than others. This can lead to a situation where some people's voices and interests are ignored, and the government may not be representative of the entire population. Therefore, a restricted franchise, where only certain individuals are allowed to vote, goes against the principle of political equality, which is a fundamental aspect of democratic societies.

Bayanin Amsa

One of the limitations on freedom of speech is libel. Libel refers to a false statement that is written or published which harms the reputation of an individual or an organization. Freedom of speech is not an absolute right and individuals must be careful not to abuse it by making false statements that could lead to legal action. In cases of libel, individuals can be sued for damages by the aggrieved party. Therefore, individuals must be responsible for what they say or write to avoid infringing on the rights of others.

Bayanin Amsa

The civil service is an institution that helps to formulate and execute public policies. It is a group of people who work for the government and are responsible for carrying out the day-to-day operations of government agencies. They are tasked with implementing laws, regulations, and policies that have been created by elected officials and are meant to benefit the general public. Their job is to serve the public interest and ensure that government programs and services are carried out efficiently and effectively.

Bayanin Amsa

The ability to command obedience is called "authority". Authority refers to the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. It is the ability to influence others and make them follow a certain course of action or behavior. An authority figure can be someone who holds a formal position of power, such as a boss or a government official, or someone who has earned respect and recognition through their expertise or personal qualities. The concept of authority is essential for maintaining order and stability in organizations, communities, and societies as a whole.

Bayanin Amsa

Delegated legislation refers to the power given by the legislature to another body or authority to make laws on their behalf. This type of legislation is often unpopular because it is not made by the legislature itself, but by an external body or authority. This may lead to concerns over accountability and transparency, as well as questions about the legitimacy of the laws created in this way. Additionally, delegated legislation may not receive the same level of scrutiny or publicity as laws created through the normal legislative process, which can lead to concerns over the quality and fairness of the laws created in this manner.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

Universal Adult Suffrage is associated with a democratic government. It refers to the right of all adult citizens to vote in an election. In a democratic government, power is vested in the people, and the government is accountable to them. Universal adult suffrage ensures that everyone has an equal say in the selection of their leaders, regardless of their social or economic status. It is a fundamental principle of democracy that ensures that the government represents the interests of all citizens and not just a select few.

Bayanin Amsa

The policy of Assimilation delayed nationalist movements in French West Africa. The policy aimed at assimilating African people into French culture and was implemented to promote French culture and civilization. It encouraged the adoption of French language, education, and culture, and provided a path to citizenship for the Africans who adopted French culture. This policy delayed the development of nationalist movements in French West Africa because it promoted the adoption of French culture and discouraged the development of local cultures and traditions. It created a cultural divide between the Africans and the French, and made it difficult for the Africans to unite and form nationalist movements.

Bayanin Amsa

A military coup d'état is a sudden, often violent, overthrow of an existing government by a group of military officials. This is usually followed by the suspension of the constitution and the establishment of military rule. The military takes control of the government, dissolves the parliament or legislature, and takes over other state institutions. In some cases, the coup leaders may also impose restrictions on civil liberties and human rights, and may even break diplomatic relations with foreign countries. However, it is not typically followed by the mass importation of firearms, as the military would already have access to weapons.

Bayanin Amsa

The study of government is important because it enables citizens to understand the processes for managing state affairs. Government affects the lives of citizens in many ways, such as through policies, laws, regulations, and programs. By studying government, individuals can learn about how decisions are made, how policies are developed and implemented, and how government institutions operate. This understanding can help citizens participate in the democratic process, hold their leaders accountable, and make informed decisions about public issues. Overall, the study of government is important for promoting good governance and enhancing civic engagement.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

The correct answer is "Board of Directors". A public corporation is a company that is owned by the government, and it operates to provide goods and services to the public. The Board of Directors is responsible for managing and overseeing the operations of the corporation. The board is composed of a group of individuals who are appointed by the government to represent the interests of the public and to ensure that the corporation is operating in a responsible and efficient manner. The board of directors sets the policies and strategic direction of the corporation, and oversees the management team to ensure that the corporation is meeting its goals and objectives.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

Political socialization is the process by which individuals learn about the norms, values, and beliefs of their political system and society, and how to participate in it. It begins from childhood when individuals learn about their society, culture, and values through family, peers, and school. In this process, individuals learn about their political identity, develop attitudes towards politics, and acquire knowledge about their political system. Therefore, the correct answer is childhood.

Bayanin Amsa

The option that can aid in the formation of public opinion is "free press". A free press is a media system that is not controlled by the government and is free to report and share information with the public. This allows for a diversity of opinions and perspectives to be expressed, and for citizens to access a wide range of information on different issues. A free press can help to shape public opinion by reporting on events, providing analysis and commentary, and facilitating public debate and discussion. In contrast, the other options listed do not necessarily promote a diversity of viewpoints or allow for the free flow of information and opinions, which can hinder the formation of public opinion.

Bayanin Amsa

Serfs were the lowest in the hierarchy of the feudal system. Serfs were peasants who were tied to the land they worked on and were obligated to provide labor services, pay rent, and give a portion of their produce to the lord of the manor. They were not allowed to leave their land without permission and had no legal rights. Knights were higher in the hierarchy and were granted land by the lord of the manor in exchange for military service. Nobles and lords were at the top of the hierarchy and owned large estates and had significant political power.

Bayanin Amsa

The legislature acts as a check on the Executive in the control of the finances of a state. The legislature, which is usually composed of elected representatives, has the power to approve or reject the budget proposals of the Executive. This ensures that the Executive does not have unchecked control over the finances of the state and that the budget is in line with the priorities and needs of the people as represented by their elected representatives. Additionally, the legislature can also exercise oversight functions to ensure that the funds allocated are being utilized in accordance with the budget and in the best interest of the state.

Bayanin Amsa

In a democratic state, the party system that usually operates is the multi-party system. This means that multiple political parties are allowed to participate in the political process, and citizens are free to choose which party they support and vote for in elections. Each political party typically represents a different set of values, ideologies, and policies, and citizens can vote for the party that aligns most closely with their own beliefs. In a multi-party system, the competition between parties helps to ensure that elected officials are accountable to the people and represent a diversity of perspectives. It also encourages political debate and discourse, as parties must articulate their positions clearly to win support from voters. Additionally, a multi-party system can help prevent any one party or group from gaining too much power and becoming authoritarian. Overall, a multi-party system is seen as a key component of a healthy democracy, as it allows for the expression of diverse viewpoints and ensures that citizens have a voice in the political process.

Bayanin Amsa

A citizen's duties refer to the responsibilities and obligations that are required of them by the state or society in which they live. These duties can include defending the nation, obeying the laws, paying taxes, serving on a jury, or participating in the democratic process. However, giving alms to the poor is not typically considered a duty of citizenship, but rather a charitable act that individuals may choose to do on their own. Therefore, the correct answer is giving alms to the poor.

Bayanin Amsa

The organ of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) established for peaceful settlement of disputes is the Commission of Mediation Conciliation and Arbitration. It was established as one of the key organs of the OAU in 1964 to promote peaceful settlement of disputes between member states and to prevent the escalation of conflicts into armed confrontations. The Commission is responsible for providing mediation, conciliation, and arbitration services to member states in order to peacefully resolve disputes. It played a critical role in resolving several conflicts on the African continent during its existence, and its functions were inherited by its successor organization, the African Union, after the OAU was dissolved in 2002.

Bayanin Amsa

Manifestoes of political parties cannot be found in a constitution. A constitution is a set of fundamental principles that outlines the framework and guidelines for governing a country. It typically contains provisions on the structure of government, the powers and functions of government institutions, the rights and responsibilities of citizens, and the procedures for amending the constitution. Fundamental human rights, organs of government, and duties and obligations of citizens are all typically included in a constitution because they are essential components of a functioning government. However, manifestoes of political parties, which outline their policies and proposed actions if they are elected, are not included in a constitution. Manifestoes are instead used as campaign materials to convince voters to support a particular political party.

Bayanin Amsa

A.V. Dicey popularized the principle of the "Rule of Law". This principle holds that no one is above the law, and that every person, including the government, must be subject to the law. The Rule of Law ensures that government actions are consistent with established legal principles and that individuals have legal protections and remedies against any violations of their rights. It is an essential element of democratic societies, as it prevents abuses of power and promotes equality before the law.

Bayanin Amsa

Laws made by the legislative bodies are called statutory laws. Statutory laws are written laws created by a legislative body, such as a parliament or congress. These laws are formally enacted and codified, meaning they are systematically arranged and organized. Statutory laws apply to everyone in the jurisdiction of the legislative body that created them and may cover a wide range of topics, including civil and criminal law, taxation, and regulation of business and commerce. They differ from case law, which is created by judicial decisions, and criminal laws, which specifically deal with offenses against the state.

Bayanin Amsa

A constitution is the fundamental laws of the land. It is a written document that outlines the framework for a government, its structure, the powers and limitations of its branches, and the rights and responsibilities of its citizens. A constitution is considered the supreme document of the government, and all laws and policies must conform to its provisions. It provides a framework for the operation of the government, protects individual rights, and helps to establish the rule of law in a society.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

In a parliamentary system, the executive is considered weak because it is accountable to parliament. The parliament is made up of elected representatives who are responsible for ensuring that the government operates in the interest of the people. The prime minister, who is the head of the government, is accountable to the parliament and must answer questions on the government's policies and actions. The parliament also has the power to pass votes of no confidence in the government, which can lead to the fall of the government and the calling of new elections. This system of checks and balances ensures that the executive is kept in check and operates within the framework of the law, making it less powerful than in other forms of government where the executive is not accountable to the legislature.

Bayanin Amsa

The 'first-past-the-post system' of voting is also called the 'simple majority system.' In this system, voters cast their vote for the candidate of their choice, and the candidate who receives the most votes (the "first-past-the-post") wins the election. It's called the simple majority system because the candidate only needs to receive a simple majority of the votes (more than any other candidate) to win the election, rather than a majority of all the votes cast. This system is commonly used in countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada for their national elections.

Bayanin Amsa

Military governments usually rule through decrees. Decrees are orders or laws issued by a military government or a single military commander with the force of law. These decrees usually bypass the normal legislative process and are used to implement policies or laws quickly without going through the usual checks and balances of a democratic government. Military governments often use decrees to govern because they give them sweeping powers to make decisions quickly and enforce them without resistance from any other government organs or institutions.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

A feature of democracy is majority rule. This means that decisions are made by the majority of people through a fair voting process. This ensures that the interests of the majority are considered and protected. Election by selected adults is also a feature of democracy, as it allows individuals to choose their leaders through a free and fair election process. However, quick decision making and rule by wealthy men are not features of democracy. Quick decision making may lead to hasty and poorly thought out decisions, while rule by the wealthy may result in the interests of the wealthy being prioritized over those of the majority.

Bayanin Amsa

Legitimacy is the right and acceptance of an authority or a governing law. It is determined mainly by acceptance, which refers to the extent to which citizens believe in and accept the right of an authority or a law to govern. Legitimacy can be obtained through different means, such as elections, political culture, and the rule of law. When citizens have faith in the legality and morality of an authority or a governing law, they are more likely to obey, support and cooperate with the government or law in question. Thus, legitimacy is an important factor in ensuring political stability and societal order.

Bayanin Amsa

The system of government where political powers are inherited is called a monarchy. In a monarchy, a king or queen is the head of state and inherits their position from their family, usually from their parents or grandparents. The monarch holds the highest power in the government and is usually a ceremonial figurehead with limited political powers, while the actual governance is carried out by the government officials appointed by the monarch or elected by the people. Monarchies can be found in different forms across various countries, such as absolute monarchy, constitutional monarchy, and elective monarchy.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

The recruitment of personnel into civil service by the public/civil service commission helps prevent various negative practices. Firstly, it prevents political patronage, which means hiring people based on their political affiliations rather than their qualifications and abilities. This ensures that only the most qualified and competent candidates are selected for civil service jobs. Secondly, it helps prevent bribery and corruption in the recruitment process. When recruitment is done through a transparent and objective process, it becomes difficult for individuals to bribe their way into civil service positions. This ensures that only the most deserving candidates get selected. Thirdly, recruitment through the public/civil service commission helps prevent overstaffing in the civil service. When recruitment is done through a centralized agency, there is a better chance that the number of staff hired is based on actual needs and not influenced by individual interests. Finally, it helps prevent bureaucracy by ensuring that the recruitment process is standardized and streamlined. This helps to minimize delays and inefficiencies in the recruitment process and ensures that qualified candidates are selected in a timely manner.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

A rigid constitution is a feature of a federal system. A federal system is a form of government where power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units, such as states or provinces. A rigid constitution is a constitution that cannot be easily amended or changed. In a federal system, the constitution is usually designed to be difficult to amend, so that it provides a stable framework for the distribution of powers between the central government and the constituent political units. This helps to prevent one level of government from becoming too powerful, and ensures that power is shared between different levels of government.

Bayanin Amsa

The source of political power among the options given is "Election." Elections are a formal process whereby citizens participate in choosing their leaders and representatives. Through elections, individuals and parties can gain political power by being elected into public office. Therefore, election is a crucial source of political power in democratic societies.

Bayanin Amsa

The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) was founded in 1920, in Accra, Ghana. It was a political organization that advocated for greater representation and independence for British West African colonies.

Bayanin Amsa

The judiciary is responsible for adjudicating cases, which means they are tasked with interpreting and applying the law to resolve disputes between parties. The judiciary does not make rules or formulate decisions on policy matters, nor do they have the power to arrest offenders. Instead, they are tasked with ensuring that justice is served by interpreting and enforcing the law in a fair and impartial manner.

Bayanin Amsa

The ratification of major executive decisions by the legislature is in line with the application of checks and balances. Checks and balances is a system where each branch of government (executive, legislative, and judicial) has some measure of influence over the other branches and can prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. In this case, the legislature acts as a check on the power of the executive branch by reviewing and ratifying (or rejecting) major decisions made by the executive. This helps to ensure that no one branch of government becomes too dominant, and that each branch can check the power of the others.

Bayanin Amsa

Confederalism was once practiced in "Senegal and The Gambia". Confederalism is a system of government in which individual states or regions form a central government for common purposes, but retain most of their sovereignty and decision-making powers. In Senegal and The Gambia, the confederal system was established in 1982, with the formation of the Senegambia Confederation. The confederation was created to promote economic cooperation, political stability, and regional integration between the two countries. Under this system, each country maintained its own government and political system, but they shared a common currency, foreign policy, and defense strategy. However, the Senegambia Confederation was short-lived, as it was dissolved in 1989 due to political and economic disagreements between the two countries. Today, both Senegal and The Gambia are independent sovereign states with their own governments and political systems.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

Democracy can be promoted through accountability. Accountability ensures that government officials and institutions are answerable to the people for their actions. It helps to ensure transparency, reduce corruption, and promote trust between the government and the people. When government officials are held accountable, they are more likely to act in the best interests of the people, which is a key aspect of democratic governance. Gerrymandering, slander, and lobbying are not effective ways to promote democracy. Gerrymandering is the manipulation of electoral boundaries for political gain, slander involves spreading false and damaging information about someone, and lobbying involves attempting to influence political decisions through the use of money or other forms of persuasion.

Bayanin Amsa

Bayanin Amsa

The coming together of two or more political parties to form a government is called a coalition. When no single political party wins a majority of seats in an election, they may form a coalition with other parties to gain a working majority in government. This means that different parties with different ideologies and policies agree to work together to run the government. In a coalition government, parties may have to compromise on their policies to achieve consensus on issues and make decisions that benefit all parties involved. Coalitions can be stable or fragile, depending on the agreement between the parties and the circumstances that brought them together. Overall, coalitions are a common way of forming governments in parliamentary systems where multiple parties compete in elections.

Bayanin Amsa

The head of the Commonwealth of Nations is the British Monarch. This means that the current reigning monarch of the United Kingdom, who is currently Queen Elizabeth II, serves as the symbolic figurehead of the 54 member countries of the Commonwealth. While the British Monarch's role in the Commonwealth is mostly ceremonial, they do play a role in promoting cooperation and goodwill between member countries.

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Meaning of Nationalism

Nationalism is the strong feeling of love, loyalty and devotion which a people have for their own country, together with the desire and organised struggle to free that country from foreign (colonial) domination and to achieve self-government or independence. It is the collective consciousness that binds people of common interest to resist alien rule and manage their own affairs.

(b) External factors that aided the growth of nationalism in West Africa

1. The Second World War (1939-1945): Ex-servicemen who fought abroad returned with new ideas, having seen that the white man was not invincible, and demanded freedom for their own countries.
2. The Atlantic Charter (1941): The declaration by Roosevelt and Churchill affirming the right of all peoples to choose their own form of government encouraged Africans to demand self-determination.
3. Formation of the United Nations Organisation: The UN Charter, which upheld self-determination and condemned colonialism, gave moral support to nationalist demands.
4. The influence of Pan-Africanism: Pan-African congresses and leaders such as W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey inspired West Africans to unite and fight colonial rule.
5. Independence of other countries (Asian example): The independence of India, Pakistan and other Asian states showed West Africans that colonial rule could be ended.
6. Activities of educated Africans trained abroad: Nationalists such as Nnamdi Azikiwe and Kwame Nkrumah, educated in Europe and America, returned with liberal and democratic ideas that fuelled the struggle.

(Any five external factors are acceptable.)

Bayanin Amsa

Factors Affecting Nigeria's Foreign Policy

Foreign policy is the set of principles and actions that guide a country's relations with other states. The formulation and conduct of Nigeria's foreign policy are shaped by the following factors:

1. National interest: The overriding aim of protecting Nigeria's security, economic well-being and prestige determines the direction of its external relations.
2. Geographical location: Nigeria's position in West Africa and its size make relations with neighbouring states (Benin, Niger, Chad, Cameroon) and leadership in the sub-region a priority.
3. Economic strength/resources: The state of the economy, especially oil revenue and financial ability, determines how far Nigeria can pursue its objectives, give aid and influence others.
4. Military strength: The size and capability of the armed forces affect Nigeria's ability to defend itself and take part in peace-keeping operations abroad.
5. Ideology and political system: The nature of the government (military or civilian) and its ideological leaning influence the style and content of foreign policy.
6. Public opinion and pressure groups: The views of citizens, the press, interest groups and the National Assembly influence decisions on external matters.
7. Historical/colonial ties: Membership of the Commonwealth and ties with Britain and other former colonies shape Nigeria's alignments.
8. International organisations and treaties: Obligations to the UN, AU, ECOWAS and Commonwealth constrain and guide Nigeria's actions.

(Any six of the above are acceptable.)

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Independence of the judiciary

Independence of the judiciary means that the courts and judges are free from the control, interference or influence of the legislature and the executive, so that they can interpret the law and administer justice impartially, without fear or favour.

(b) Reasons for the independence of the judiciary

1. To ensure impartial justice. Free from external pressure, judges can decide cases purely on the merits and the law, without bias.
2. To protect citizens' rights and liberties. An independent judiciary can defend fundamental human rights against abuse by the government.
3. To uphold the rule of law. It ensures that everyone, including the government, is subject to and judged by the same law.
4. To check the other arms of government. Through judicial review the courts can declare acts of the legislature and executive unconstitutional, preserving the separation of powers.
5. To sustain confidence in the legal system. When the public trusts that courts are fair, they resort to the courts rather than to self-help.

Bayanin Amsa

None

Bayanin Amsa

Features of the Policy of Indirect Rule in West Africa

Indirect rule was the British system of governing their colonies through existing traditional rulers and native institutions. Its main features were:

1. Use of traditional rulers: The British governed the people through their own chiefs, emirs and kings, who ruled on behalf of and under the supervision of British officials.
2. Native Authorities: Local administration was organised around Native Authorities headed by the traditional ruler, who exercised executive powers over their areas.
3. Native/Customary Courts: Courts were established to administer justice based largely on native law and custom, presided over by the traditional rulers.
4. Native Treasury (Beit-el-mal): Each Native Authority kept a treasury into which local taxes were paid and out of which local services and salaries were financed.
5. Supervision by British Residents and District Officers: British officers advised, guided and controlled the traditional rulers, ensuring that colonial policies were carried out.
6. Retention of native laws and customs: The system preserved and worked through existing customs, so long as they were not repugnant to natural justice.

(Any four of the above are acceptable.)

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Formation of the Nigerian National Alliance (NNA) of 1964

The Nigerian National Alliance was a political alliance formed in 1964 in preparation for the federal elections of that year. It was an alliance between the Northern People's Congress (NPC), led by Sir Ahmadu Bello, and the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) of Chief S.L. Akintola in the Western Region, together with some smaller parties such as the Niger Delta Congress, the Dynamic Party and the Midwest Democratic Front. The alliance was formed to counter the rival United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) made up of the NCNC, Action Group and their allies. The NNA broadly represented conservative interests and drew its main strength from the North and the ruling group in the West.

(b) Achievements of the Alliance

1. It won the controversial 1964 federal elections and formed the central government, retaining power at the centre.
2. It kept Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa in office as Prime Minister after the elections.
3. It brought together the NPC and NNDP as partners, strengthening the position of the ruling group in the Northern and Western Regions.
4. It provided an organised platform that mobilised conservative political forces against the UPGA.
5. It maintained, for a time, the political dominance of the North at the federal level and preserved the existing power structure.

(Any five points are acceptable.)

Bayanin Amsa

Functions of the legislature

1. Law-making. The legislature makes, amends and repeals the laws of the state.
2. Control of public finance. It approves the budget, authorises taxation and government spending and scrutinises public accounts.
3. Oversight of the executive. It checks and controls the executive through questions, debates, motions and investigations, and can pass a vote of no confidence in a parliamentary system.

Limitations of the legislature

1. Judicial review. The courts can declare its laws unconstitutional and therefore null and void.
2. Executive influence and delegated legislation. A dominant executive, party control and the delegation of law-making to ministers reduce the legislature's real power.
3. Constitutional and procedural limits. The constitution, entrenched clauses, human-rights provisions and required special majorities restrict what the legislature can do.

Bayanin Amsa

Problems Facing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

1. Language and colonial barriers: The division of member states into English-speaking, French-speaking and Portuguese-speaking blocs creates communication problems and rival loyalties, especially the continuing influence of France over the francophone states.
2. Inadequate funding: Many member states fail to pay their financial contributions promptly, leaving the organisation short of funds to run its programmes.
3. Political instability: Frequent coups, civil wars and insecurity in member states (such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, Mali and Guinea-Bissau) disrupt cooperation and integration.
4. Differences in currency and economies: The absence of a common currency and the varying levels of economic development among members hamper free trade and monetary union.
5. Problem of free movement: Despite the protocol on free movement of persons, harassment at borders, expulsion of aliens and smuggling continue to hinder integration.
6. Over-dependence on foreign powers: Many members remain economically tied to their former colonial masters, which weakens intra-regional trade and unity.
7. Duplication of efforts: The existence of other regional bodies such as the francophone UEMOA creates rivalry and divided loyalty.

(Any six of the above are acceptable.)

Bayanin Amsa

Features of the Macpherson Constitution of 1951

1. It was a product of wide consultation: Unlike earlier constitutions, it was drawn up after extensive discussions with Nigerians at village, divisional, provincial and national levels, so it is often described as the first "made in Nigeria" constitution.
2. It introduced a genuine federal structure: Nigeria was divided into three regions - Northern, Western and Eastern - each with its own regional legislature (House of Assembly) and executive council.
3. Enlarged central legislature: It provided for a Central House of Representatives with a larger number of Nigerian members, most of whom were elected indirectly by the regional houses.
4. Regional Houses of Assembly: Each region had a legislature, and the Northern Region additionally had a House of Chiefs, while the Western Region also had a House of Chiefs.
5. Council of Ministers: A central Council of Ministers was created, made up of the Governor, official members and Nigerian ministers drawn from the regions, giving Nigerians a share in executive functions.
6. Regional executive councils: Each region had its own executive council with Nigerian ministers, marking a measure of regional self-government.
7. The Governor retained wide powers: The Governor still held reserved and veto powers and could override the legislature, so ultimate control remained with the British.

(Any six of the above are acceptable.)

Bayanin Amsa

Merits of pressure groups in a democratic state

1. They promote participation. Pressure groups draw more citizens into political and public affairs between elections.
2. They educate the public and government. By researching and publicising issues, they inform citizens and supply government with expert opinion.
3. They protect and articulate interests. They defend the sectional interests of their members, such as workers, farmers or professionals.
4. They check the government. Through lobbying, petitions and protests they restrain government from oppressive or unpopular policies.
5. They act as a link between government and the people. They channel the demands and grievances of the people to the authorities.
6. They serve as a training ground for leaders. Members gain organisational and leadership experience useful in wider political life.
7. They strengthen democracy. By providing alternative centres of influence, they prevent the concentration of power and enrich public debate.

Bayanin Amsa

Characteristics of a democratic government

1. Periodic free and fair elections. Leaders are chosen at regular intervals through elections in which citizens vote freely.
2. Popular participation. Citizens take part in government directly or through elected representatives; sovereignty resides in the people.
3. Rule of law. Everyone, including the rulers, is subject to the law, and no one is punished except for a breach of law established in the courts.
4. Protection of fundamental human rights. Freedoms of speech, association, movement, religion and the press are guaranteed.
5. Existence of an opposition. Rival parties are free to criticise the government and offer alternatives.
6. Separation of powers. The legislative, executive and judicial functions are shared among different organs to prevent abuse.
7. Independence of the judiciary. Courts are free from executive and legislative control and dispense justice impartially.
8. Majority rule with respect for minority rights. Decisions follow the will of the majority while the rights of minorities are protected.
9. Accountability of government. Those in power are answerable to the people for their conduct.

Bayanin Amsa

Features of Igbo Traditional Society

The Igbo of south-eastern Nigeria operated a decentralised, republican political system without a central monarch. Its main features were:

1. Absence of a centralised authority (stateless/acephalous system): There was no single powerful king ruling over the whole society; each village or town governed itself independently.
2. Direct/participatory democracy: Government was based on the village assembly where all adult males had the right to attend, speak and take part in decision-making. Decisions were reached by consensus.
3. Rule by the council of elders and titled men: The elders (Ndichie), heads of families and holders of titles such as the Ozo exercised authority and settled disputes on behalf of the community.
4. Age-grade system: Age grades organised the youth for tasks such as sanitation, defence, road-making and enforcement of decisions, and served as an important instrument of administration and social control.
5. Kinship and family (lineage) organisation: Society was built on the extended family and lineage, with the oldest man (Okpara/Ofo holder) as head, giving strong communal and blood ties.
6. Role of religion and secret societies: Belief in gods, ancestors and oracles (such as the Ozo institution and secret societies like Mmanwu) reinforced law, order and morality.
7. Republican and egalitarian outlook: The Igbo prized individual achievement and equality; leadership was earned through hard work, wisdom and titles rather than inherited.

(Any six of the above are acceptable.)