WAEC SSCE - Biology - 2002

Bayanin Amsa

The numbers in a population would rise if there was an increase in the amount of food available. The population of any organism is influenced by various factors, including the availability of resources such as food. When there is an increase in the amount of food available, the individuals in a population have a better chance of survival and are more likely to reproduce. As a result, the population will grow over time. Conversely, a decrease in the availability of food can lead to a decrease in population size due to increased competition for resources and reduced reproductive success. On the other hand, the spread of disease and the number of predators can reduce the population size by increasing mortality rates. In the case of disease, individuals may become ill or die, reducing the number of individuals in the population. Predators can also reduce the population size by consuming individuals, which can lead to a decrease in reproductive success and population growth. The number of deaths also reduces the population size, as there are fewer individuals in the population. In summary, an increase in the amount of food available can contribute to the growth of a population, while factors such as disease, predators, and the number of deaths can reduce the population size.

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During photosynthesis, oxygen is released as a byproduct when water molecules are split into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms through a process called photolysis. This occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells, where chlorophyll traps light energy from the sun and converts it into chemical energy used to power the process of photosynthesis. Thus, the correct answer is: "During the photolysis of water using energy trapped in chlorophyll".

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Excretion refers to the removal of waste products produced by the metabolic activities of living organisms. These waste products include substances such as urea, carbon dioxide, and excess water, which need to be eliminated from the body to maintain proper physiological function. Therefore, the definition that best describes excretion is "removal of the waste products of metabolism."

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Bayanin Amsa

Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting and preserving wild animals and their habitats. It is enhanced by discouraging the elimination of endangered species. This can be achieved through the creation of protected areas and national parks, education on the importance of conservation, and strict enforcement of laws against poaching and illegal trade of wildlife. Enacting laws to encourage poaching, encouraging the creation of satellite hunting units, and suppressing the activities of wildlife conservation agencies are counterproductive and can undermine the efforts to conserve wildlife.

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Diffusion is the process by which substances move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. In living organisms, diffusion occurs through the exchange of gases and nutrients between cells and their environment. The efficiency of diffusion is directly related to the surface area available for exchange and the thickness of the exchange surface. Therefore, diffusion is most effective in living organisms when the surface area available for exchange is large and the thickness of the exchange surface is small. A larger surface area allows for more exchange to occur, while a smaller thickness of the exchange surface reduces the distance that substances must travel. Conversely, if the surface area is small and the thickness is large, diffusion will be less effective, as there is less area available for exchange and the distance that substances must travel is greater.

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The importance of practicing crop rotation in agriculture is to maintain the fertility of the soil. Crop rotation is the practice of growing different crops in the same area in a planned sequence over time. This can help to maintain the health and fertility of the soil by preventing the depletion of nutrients that can occur when the same crop is grown repeatedly in the same area. Different crops have different nutrient needs, and by rotating crops, farmers can help to replenish the nutrients in the soil. For example, legumes like peas and beans can fix nitrogen from the air and convert it into a form that plants can use. By planting legumes in a field after a crop that has depleted the soil of nitrogen, the legumes can help to restore nitrogen to the soil for the next crop. In addition to maintaining soil fertility, crop rotation can also help to control pests and diseases, reduce weed growth, and improve soil structure and water retention. Therefore, the importance of practicing crop rotation in agriculture is to maintain the fertility of the soil, which can lead to healthier crops and more sustainable farming practices.

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The total amount of energy entering a food chain is that which is present in the producer. Producers are the organisms that convert energy from the sun, through the process of photosynthesis, into organic molecules that can be used as food by other organisms. As a result, they are the source of all energy in an ecosystem. When a herbivore eats a producer, it obtains some of the energy that was stored in the producer's organic molecules. When a carnivore eats an herbivore, it obtains some of the energy that was stored in the herbivore's body. The amount of energy that is passed from one organism to another in a food chain is always less than the amount that was present in the previous organism, as some of the energy is lost as heat or used for metabolic processes. Therefore, the total amount of energy available to all organisms in a food chain is that which was originally present in the producer. Without producers, there would be no energy available for other organisms to survive and thrive.

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Synovial fluid will ease the friction between the ends of bones in a movable joint. Synovial fluid is a clear, viscous liquid that lubricates joints and reduces friction between the bones during movement. It is produced by the synovial membrane, which lines the joint cavity, and contains a variety of substances such as hyaluronic acid, lubricin, and phospholipids that contribute to its lubricating properties. Without synovial fluid, the bones would rub against each other, causing wear and tear and eventually leading to joint damage and pain.

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Bayanin Amsa

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The possession of breathing roots is a characteristic of plants growing in mangrove swamps. Mangrove swamps are coastal ecosystems where there is a mixture of saltwater and freshwater, and the soil is often saturated with water. The plants that grow in these environments have adapted to the challenging conditions by developing specialized roots, known as breathing roots or pneumatophores. Breathing roots grow upward from the waterlogged soil to allow the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the submerged roots. They are able to take in oxygen, which is necessary for respiration, and release carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of the plant's metabolism. In addition to breathing roots, mangrove plants also have other adaptations to help them survive in this environment, such as thick waxy leaves to reduce water loss, and salt-excreting glands to remove excess salt from the plant's tissues. Therefore, the possession of breathing roots is a characteristic of plants growing in mangrove swamps, which are specialized coastal ecosystems where plants have adapted to survive in the challenging conditions of waterlogged soil and fluctuating saltwater levels.

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Social insects are those insects that live in a society or group, where each individual has a specific role to play in the group. Some of the most common social insects include wasps, termites, and bees. However, the cotton stainer is not a social insect. It is a type of insect that feeds on cotton plants, and it does not live in a group or society like the other three insects mentioned. Instead, cotton stainers are solitary insects that prefer to live and hunt alone. So, in summary, wasps, termites, and bees are social insects, while cotton stainers are not.

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The morphological variations refer to the differences in physical characteristics or traits among individuals of a species. Among the options given, "blood groups" are not a morphological variation. Blood groups are determined by the presence or absence of certain molecules on the surface of red blood cells. This variation is determined by genetics, and it does not involve physical traits that can be seen externally. On the other hand, size, color, and fingerprints are morphological variations that can be observed externally. Size refers to the variation in body height, weight, and overall body structure. Color refers to the differences in skin, hair, and eye color among individuals. Fingerprints refer to the unique patterns on the fingertips, which are used as a means of identification. In summary, while blood groups are a variation among humans, they are not a morphological variation as they are not externally visible.

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Bayanin Amsa

Neither the man nor the woman has the genotype for the O blood group, which is the universal donor. However, their children can inherit an O blood group allele from both parents and have the O blood group.

To determine the percentage of their children that would be universal donors (O blood group), we need to use a Punnett square.

The man has the genotype Bb, and the woman has the genotype Aa. When we combine these genotypes in a Punnett square, we get the following:

  | A    a
--|--------
B | AB   aB
b | Ab   ab

From this Punnett square, we see that there is a 25% chance that the child will inherit an O blood group allele from both parents and have the O blood group (shown as "ab" in the Punnett square). Therefore, the answer is 25%.

Note that while the child with the O blood group can donate to anyone, they can only receive blood from another O blood group donor.

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The statement that is true about fingerprint patterns is that they are consistent for a lifetime. Fingerprints are unique patterns of ridges and furrows on the skin of the fingers and palms that form during fetal development and remain unchanged throughout a person's life, except in the case of injury or disease. The patterns of ridges and furrows on each individual's fingerprints are unique, and no two people have the same fingerprints. This is why fingerprints are often used for identification purposes, such as in forensic investigations or for security clearance. It is important to note that while fingerprint patterns are consistent for a lifetime, they can be altered by injury, disease, or intentional modification, such as through surgery or intentional scarring.

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Ecology is the study of the interrelationship between living organisms and their environment. It includes the study of the interactions between different species of plants and animals, as well as the relationships between organisms and their physical surroundings, such as the properties of a habitat. Ecology helps us to understand how organisms adapt to their environment, how they affect and are affected by other organisms, and how human activities can impact the natural world.

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The term that ensures the survival of an organism in its environment is "adaptation." Adaptation refers to the process by which an organism changes over time to better suit its environment and increase its chances of survival. For example, a species of bird with a long beak might adapt to its environment by using the beak to reach food that other birds can't. Over time, this adaptation can lead to the survival and proliferation of that species, as it is better equipped to thrive in its environment. Hibernation, succession, and competition are also important concepts in ecology and biology, but they do not necessarily ensure the survival of an organism in the same way that adaptation does. Hibernation, for example, is a survival strategy used by some animals to conserve energy during harsh environmental conditions, but it does not necessarily lead to long-term survival or adaptation. Succession refers to the gradual process of ecological change in a given area, while competition refers to the struggle for resources between different organisms in an ecosystem. While both of these concepts can impact an organism's chances of survival, they are not the primary mechanism by which organisms ensure their survival in an environment.

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The characteristic that differentiates a palisade cell from a liver cell is "a cell wall and chloroplast." Palisade cells are plant cells that are found in the leaves and are responsible for photosynthesis, while liver cells are animal cells that are found in the liver and have various functions related to metabolism, detoxification, and storage. The cell wall is a rigid structure that surrounds plant cells, providing support and protection, and it is not found in animal cells. Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells that are responsible for photosynthesis, which converts sunlight into energy. Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll, which gives plants their green color. Liver cells do not have chloroplasts, as they are not involved in photosynthesis. Therefore, the possession of a cell wall and chloroplasts differentiates palisade cells from liver cells.

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The name given to a sudden change in a gene or chromosome that can be passed on to the offspring is "mutation." A mutation is a change in the genetic material of an organism, and it can result in the production of new traits or variations in existing traits. Mutations can occur spontaneously or as a result of exposure to mutagenic agents like chemicals, radiation, or viruses. Some mutations may be beneficial, harmful, or have no effect on the organism. When mutations occur in the germ cells (sperm and egg cells), they can be passed on to the offspring, leading to heritable genetic variation.

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Height is a continuous variation in the human population. Continuous variation refers to the variation in a trait that can take on a range of values, without distinct categories or breaks. Height is an example of a continuous variation in humans because it can vary from very short to very tall without distinct categories or breaks. In contrast, sex and Rh factor are examples of discrete or categorical variations because they fall into distinct categories of male/female and Rh positive/negative, respectively. Down's syndrome is also not a continuous variation because it is a genetic disorder caused by an extra chromosome, and it either occurs or does not occur in an individual. It does not fall into a range of values. In summary, height is an example of a continuous variation in humans, while sex, Rh factor, and Down's syndrome are not.

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After fertilization in flowering plants, the zygote develops into the embryo. The embryo is the earliest stage of the plant's development and contains the embryonic root, or radicle, which will develop into the plant's root system, and the embryonic shoot, or plumule, which will develop into the plant's stem, leaves, and flowers. The embryo is also typically composed of one or two cotyledons, which are the first leaves to emerge from the seed upon germination and serve as the plant's primary nutrient source until it can photosynthesize on its own. Overall, the embryo is a crucial stage in the development of flowering plants, as it determines the future growth and structure of the plant.

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A vegetable farmer will benefit from a cattle rearer if the faecal remains of the cattle are made available to the farmer. The faecal remains of the cattle are a rich source of nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are essential for plant growth. When these nutrients are added to the soil, they improve soil fertility, increase crop yield, and enhance the quality of the produce. Cattle manure is an organic fertilizer that is beneficial to the vegetable farmer, as it is a low-cost, eco-friendly, and sustainable way to improve soil fertility. It helps to maintain the soil's nutrient balance, increases its water-holding capacity, and promotes the growth of beneficial microorganisms in the soil. In addition, the cattle rearer can also help the farmer by providing additional labour, such as ploughing, weeding, and harvesting, which can help to reduce the farmer's workload and increase efficiency. Therefore, the vegetable farmer will benefit from a cattle rearer if the faecal remains of the cattle are made available to the farmer, as they can be used as a valuable source of organic fertilizer that can improve soil fertility and increase crop yield.

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Euglena is the organism that has both plant and animal-like features. Euglena is a unicellular organism that has a flagellum, which it uses for movement. It is usually classified as a type of protist, which is a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that do not fit into any other kingdom. Like plants, Euglena contains chloroplasts, which are organelles that allow it to perform photosynthesis and produce its food from sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. This means that Euglena is able to make its own food, just like plants. However, unlike plants, Euglena is also capable of ingesting other small organisms, such as bacteria or other protists, in order to obtain nutrients. This feature is more commonly associated with animal-like behavior, where the organism ingests other organisms for nutrition. In summary, Euglena has both plant and animal-like features because it can perform photosynthesis and make its own food like plants, but it is also capable of ingesting other organisms for nutrients, similar to animals.

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Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate that provides rigidity and support to plant cells. The part of a plant cell that contains cellulose is the cell wall. The cell wall is located outside the cell membrane and is composed mainly of cellulose. It is responsible for maintaining the shape and structural integrity of the cell, as well as protecting it from external stressors. The vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle that stores water and other materials, the cytoplasm is the fluid-like substance that fills the cell, and the chloroplast is the organelle responsible for photosynthesis.

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Adrenalin is considered as a hormone for "fight or flight" because it prepares the body for action. Adrenalin is produced by the adrenal glands and is released into the bloodstream in response to stress or danger. When the body senses danger or a stressful situation, adrenalin triggers a series of physiological responses that help the body cope with the situation. These responses include increasing heart rate, increasing blood pressure, and releasing glucose into the bloodstream for energy. This allows the body to respond quickly and effectively to the situation, either by fighting or by running away (flight). So, adrenalin plays a key role in the "fight or flight" response to stress or danger.

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The option that depicts the external features of a rat as a mammal is "fur and whisker." Rats are a type of mammal, which means that they share certain features with other mammals such as humans, dogs, and cats. One of the most noticeable features of rats is their fur, which is made up of dense, soft hairs that cover their entire body. This fur helps to keep them warm and provides protection from the elements. Another distinguishing feature of rats as a mammal is their whiskers. Rats have long, sensitive whiskers on their face that they use to navigate their surroundings and sense potential predators. These whiskers are very important for rats, as they allow them to detect changes in their environment, even in the dark. Other features that are characteristic of mammals, such as the diaphragm and lungs, milk production, and a long intestine and tail, are not unique to rats and are shared by many other mammal species. In summary, the external features that best depict a rat as a mammal are their fur and whiskers, which are unique to this group of animals and help to distinguish them from other types of animals.

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Spraying insecticides to destroy cotton-stainers in a cotton-field is most likely to cause damage to the ecosystem in the control of pests and weeds. In an ecosystem, every organism plays a crucial role, and any interference or disruption can have significant effects on the environment. Pest and weed control measures are essential to maintain the balance of an ecosystem and ensure a sustainable agricultural system. However, some methods can have negative impacts on the environment and lead to unintended consequences. Spraying insecticides to destroy cotton-stainers in a cotton-field can lead to the unintended killing of other beneficial insects, such as bees and ladybirds, which are crucial for pollination and pest control. Additionally, the use of insecticides can harm other wildlife and contaminate soil and water resources, leading to long-term damage to the ecosystem. In contrast, the use of ladybird insects to feed on aphids, introduction of bacterium to kill butterfly larvae, and the introduction of Tilapia fish in ponds to feed on mosquito larvae are all natural and eco-friendly methods of pest and weed control that have a lower impact on the environment. These methods do not harm other organisms in the ecosystem, and they can promote the growth of beneficial organisms, leading to a more sustainable and healthy ecosystem. Therefore, spraying insecticides to destroy cotton-stainers in a cotton-field is most likely to cause damage to the ecosystem in the control of pests and weeds.

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The first member in any food chain must be an autotroph. Autotrophs are organisms that produce their food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, meaning they can synthesize organic compounds from inorganic materials like carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight or chemical energy. They are also known as producers since they produce the base of the food chain that other organisms rely on for survival. For example, plants are autotrophs because they use sunlight to produce their food through photosynthesis. Herbivores, which are animals that eat only plants, rely on these plants for their energy needs. Carnivores, which are animals that eat other animals, rely on herbivores for their energy needs. Zooplankton, which are tiny aquatic animals, can either be herbivores or carnivores and also rely on autotrophs for their energy needs. Therefore, autotrophs are the starting point of any food chain because they provide the energy source that sustains all other living organisms in the ecosystem.

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The correct sequence, from the most complex of organizations, is: Mitochondrion, Neuron, Muscle, Heart, Alimentary canal, Rabbit. The sequence starts with the mitochondrion, which is the smallest and simplest of the structures listed. Neurons are more complex than mitochondria, as they are specialized cells that transmit information throughout the body. Muscles are made up of many specialized cells and are more complex than neurons. The heart is even more complex than muscles, as it is a specialized organ that pumps blood throughout the body. The alimentary canal, which includes the digestive system, is more complex than the heart, as it is a system of organs that break down and absorb nutrients from food. Finally, the rabbit is the most complex organism listed, as it has all of the structures listed above, plus many other systems and structures that make it a fully functioning organism. Therefore, the correct sequence, from the most simple to the most complex structure, is based on the idea that each structure is built upon the previous one, with each new structure adding more complexity and specialization to the organism.

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Bayanin Amsa

When a person moves from a darkroom into bright light, the pupil becomes smaller. The pupil is the dark, circular opening in the center of the iris of the eye that controls the amount of light that enters the eye. In dim light, the pupil opens up or dilates to let more light in, while in bright light, the pupil constricts or becomes smaller to limit the amount of light that enters the eye. So, when a person moves from a darkroom into bright light, the pupil automatically becomes smaller to prevent the eye from being overwhelmed by the sudden increase in light. This is a natural protective mechanism of the eye to prevent damage to the sensitive retina at the back of the eye.

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Bayanin Amsa

Animal cells are different from plant cells because animal cells have centrioles. Centrioles are organelles that play a role in cell division. They are involved in the formation of spindle fibers that help separate chromosomes during cell division. Plant cells, on the other hand, do not have centrioles but have a cell wall that provides structural support and protection to the cell. Additionally, plant cells have large central vacuoles that help maintain turgor pressure and chloroplasts that are responsible for photosynthesis.

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Micro-organisms are important in recycling nutrients because they break down dead organic materials. Micro-organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, play a vital role in the process of decomposition. They break down dead plants and animals into simpler compounds that can be reused by other living organisms. Through this process, nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are released into the soil, where they can be taken up by plant roots and incorporated into new plant growth. This helps to maintain a balance in nutrient levels and keeps ecosystems functioning properly.

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Testosterone and oestrogen are the pairs of hormones that correspond to male and female respectively in humans. Testosterone is a male sex hormone responsible for the development of male sexual characteristics such as deeper voice, facial hair, and muscle growth. On the other hand, oestrogen is a female sex hormone responsible for the development of female sexual characteristics such as breast growth, menstrual cycle regulation, and bone density. While both hormones are present in both males and females, males have higher levels of testosterone and lower levels of oestrogen, while females have higher levels of oestrogen and lower levels of testosterone.

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Excessive transpiration is the option that will cause wilting in plants. Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water through their leaves in the form of vapor. This process is necessary for the survival of plants, as it helps to transport water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant. However, when the rate of transpiration is greater than the rate of water absorption by the roots, the plant will begin to lose water faster than it can replace it. This can cause the plant to lose turgor pressure, which is the pressure that the cell contents exert against the cell walls. When the turgor pressure is lost, the leaves and stems of the plant will become limp and wilted. On the other hand, humidity, coldness, and adequate soil water are not likely to cause wilting in plants. High humidity can actually help to reduce the rate of transpiration, as the air around the plant is already saturated with water vapor. Cold temperatures can slow down the rate of transpiration, but they are unlikely to cause wilting unless they are accompanied by other factors such as waterlogging of the soil. Adequate soil water is essential for maintaining the turgor pressure in the plant, and it will not cause wilting as long as the rate of transpiration is not excessive. In summary, excessive transpiration is the factor that is most likely to cause wilting in plants because it can result in a loss of turgor pressure, which causes the leaves and stems to become limp and wilted.

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Bayanin Amsa

Measles in infants can be prevented by vaccinating young children. Measles is a highly contagious viral disease that can lead to serious health complications and even death in young children. Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent measles. The measles vaccine is typically given to children in two doses, the first dose at 12-15 months of age, and the second dose at 4-6 years of age. Vaccination not only protects the individual who receives it but also helps to prevent the spread of the disease in the community.

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Bayanin Amsa

The structure of the ear that is responsible for balancing is the semi-circular canals. The semi-circular canals are three small, fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that are responsible for detecting changes in head position and movement. When we move our heads, the fluid in the semi-circular canals moves, which sends signals to the brain about the direction and speed of the movement. This information is used by the brain to help maintain balance and coordinate movements. In addition to the semi-circular canals, there are other structures in the inner ear that are involved in balance, including the otoliths, which are small crystals in the inner ear that detect changes in the position of the head relative to gravity. Therefore, the semi-circular canals are an important structure in the ear responsible for balance, allowing us to maintain our balance and coordination when we move.

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Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes are specialized cells in the body that have a main function of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body tissues. RBCs contain a protein called hemoglobin that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it through the bloodstream to the body's tissues. Once the oxygen is delivered, RBCs pick up carbon dioxide, which is a waste product produced by the body's cells, and transport it back to the lungs to be exhaled. Therefore, the function of the red blood cells is to transport oxygen to the cells and remove carbon dioxide from them.

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The instrument used to measure the rate of water uptake in plants is a Potometer. A potometer is a device used to measure the rate at which a plant absorbs water. It consists of a glass tube attached to a plant stem, with a graduated scale for measuring the movement of water in the tube. When the plant transpires, it pulls water up from the roots, and this movement of water can be measured with the potometer.

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The trend of colour changes observed in testing for reducing sugars using iodine solution, Biuret test, Benedict reagents, and ethanol are: - Iodine solution: Blue → black (presence of starch) - Biuret test: Blue → violet (presence of proteins) - Benedict reagents: Blue → brick red (presence of reducing sugars) - Ethanol: Milky (presence of fats) Therefore, the trend of colour changes that would be observed when testing for reducing sugars is brown → blue → brick red → clear, corresponding to the colour changes in the Benedict reagent test.

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Bayanin Amsa

The organ in humans responsible for the removal of excess water is the kidney. The kidney is a pair of bean-shaped organs located at the back of the abdomen. They are responsible for filtering waste products and excess water from the blood, which is then excreted from the body in the form of urine. The kidneys regulate the body's fluid balance by adjusting the amount of water excreted in the urine.

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Guinea grass is not an example of entomophilous flower. Entomophilous flowers are those that are pollinated by insects, such as bees, butterflies, and flies. These flowers are usually brightly colored, have a pleasant fragrance, and produce nectar as a reward for the pollinators. Hibiscus, Flamboyant, and Allamanda are all examples of entomophilous flowers. Guinea grass, on the other hand, is wind-pollinated and does not rely on insects for pollination. Wind-pollinated flowers tend to be small and inconspicuous, with no need for showy petals or fragrant odors. Therefore, Guinea grass is not an example of an entomophilous flower, as it is pollinated by wind rather than insects.

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In flowering plants, fertilization would occur when one of the nuclei inside the pollen tube fuses with the ovum. Flowering plants reproduce sexually, and they need to undergo fertilization to produce seeds. The process of fertilization starts with the transfer of pollen from the male part of the plant (anther) to the female part (stigma) in a process called pollination. Once the pollen grain lands on the stigma, it produces a tube (pollen tube) that grows down through the style until it reaches the ovary, where the ovules are located. Inside the pollen tube, there are two nuclei - one generative nucleus and one tube nucleus. The generative nucleus divides into two sperm nuclei, while the tube nucleus helps the pollen tube to grow down through the style. When the pollen tube reaches the ovary, one of the sperm nuclei fuses with the egg or ovum, while the other fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the endosperm. This process is called double fertilization and results in the formation of a zygote, which will eventually develop into a seed, and the endosperm, which provides nutrients for the developing embryo. So, in summary, fertilization in flowering plants occurs when one of the nuclei inside the pollen tube fuses with the ovum.

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The process in mammals where liquid is passed from blood capillaries to Bowman's capsule is called filtration. During filtration, blood is filtered through the walls of the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule due to the high pressure in the blood vessels. This allows small molecules such as water, ions, and waste products like urea to pass through into the Bowman's capsule while larger molecules such as proteins and blood cells are retained in the blood vessels. The filtered fluid is then further processed and modified as it passes through the rest of the nephron to form urine.

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If the cerebellum of a person is slightly damaged, their walking or gait will be impaired. The cerebellum is a part of the brain located at the back of the skull, below the cerebrum, and it plays a crucial role in the coordination of movement and balance. It receives information from the sensory systems of the body, such as the eyes and ears, and sends signals to other parts of the brain and the spinal cord to coordinate movements. If the cerebellum is damaged, it can lead to ataxia, a lack of muscle coordination that affects movements such as walking, speech, and eye movements. A person with cerebellar ataxia may have difficulty with balance and coordination, and their movements may appear uncoordinated or jerky. They may have trouble walking in a straight line or maintaining a steady posture. Therefore, if the cerebellum of a person is slightly damaged, their walking or gait will be impaired, while their vision, breathing, and digestion are unlikely to be affected. However, the extent of impairment may depend on the severity and location of the damage within the cerebellum.

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Species of animals and plants are considered endangered when their populations have become so small that they may soon die out. This can happen for various reasons, such as habitat loss, pollution, climate change, or overhunting. Endangered species are important to protect because they play important roles in their ecosystems, and their loss can have negative effects on the environment and other species. It is important to take action to conserve these species and their habitats to ensure their survival for future generations.

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The direct evidence of evolution is provided by the fossil record. Fossils are the remains or traces of organisms from the past that have been preserved in sedimentary rocks. They show the changes in organisms that have occurred over time and provide a record of the history of life on Earth. By studying fossils, scientists can trace the evolution of various groups of organisms, including animals, plants, and even bacteria. Classification, comparative anatomy, and comparative embryology are all indirect evidence of evolution. They provide clues and support for the theory of evolution, but they do not directly demonstrate the occurrence of evolution. For example, classification is based on the similarities and differences between organisms, which can reflect their evolutionary relationships. Comparative anatomy shows how different organisms have adapted to their environments and evolved different structures over time. Comparative embryology reveals similarities and differences in the development of different organisms, which can also reflect their evolutionary relationships. But none of these provide direct evidence of the occurrence of evolution.

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An adaptation by plants to reduce the rate of water loss in a dry habitat is the possession of a few sunken stomata on the lower epidermis only. Stomata are tiny openings on the surface of leaves that allow for gas exchange, including the exchange of water vapor. In a dry habitat, plants need to conserve water in order to survive. By having fewer stomata, plants can reduce the amount of water that is lost through transpiration, which is the process by which water evaporates from the leaves. In addition, having sunken stomata on the lower epidermis only can help to reduce water loss by protecting the stomata from direct exposure to the dry air. This can help to maintain a humid environment around the stomata, which can reduce the rate of water loss through transpiration. Therefore, possessing a few sunken stomata on the lower epidermis only is an important adaptation by plants to reduce water loss in a dry habitat, allowing them to survive in environments where water is scarce.

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(a) Explanation of terms

• (i) Producer: an autotrophic organism, usually a green plant, that manufactures its own food from simple inorganic substances by photosynthesis, forming the first trophic level of a food chain.
• (ii) Consumer: a heterotrophic organism that cannot make its own food and feeds on other organisms (plants or animals) for its energy and nutrients.
• (iii) Community: all the populations of different species (plants, animals and microbes) living and interacting together in a particular habitat at the same time.
• (iv) Decomposer: an organism, such as bacteria and fungi, that feeds on dead organic matter, breaking it down and releasing nutrients back into the environment.

(b)(i) Four characteristics of trees of the Tropical Rain Forest

• Very tall trees with straight trunks and buttress roots for support.
• Broad, evergreen leaves with drip tips.
• Form distinct layers (canopy, under-canopy) with a closed canopy.
• Have many climbers (lianes) and epiphytes growing on them.

(ii) Four characteristics of trees/shrubs of the Savanna

• Trees are short, scattered and widely spaced.
• Have small, narrow or reduced leaves to reduce water loss.
• Have thick, fire-resistant (corky) bark.
• Have deep or extensive root systems to reach water; many are deciduous, shedding leaves in the dry season.

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Receptor

A receptor is a specialised sensory cell or group of sensory cells that detects a particular stimulus and converts it into nerve impulses which are transmitted to the central nervous system.

(b) General features common to receptors

• They are made up of specialised sensory cells, often occurring in groups.
• The free ends of the sensory cells usually bear short hair-like processes or dendrites that receive the stimulus.
• Nerve fibres arise from, or are connected to, their basal regions.
• These nerve fibres lead through sensory neurones to the cranial nerves or spinal nerves and then to the central nervous system.
• Each receptor is adapted to respond most readily to a particular kind of stimulus.

(c)(i) Labelled diagram of the outer and middle ear of a human

The diagram is drawn to a length of approximately 9 cm and shows only the outer and middle ear.

(c)(ii) Ways of caring for the ear

1. Avoid inserting sharp objects, pins or matchsticks into the ear.
2. Keep the outer ear clean and dry; do not force objects deeply into the auditory canal.
3. Avoid prolonged exposure to loud noise and excessive use of earphones at high volume.
4. Report ear pain, discharge, injury or difficulty in hearing promptly to a medical doctor.
5. Seek prompt treatment for infections such as measles and meningitis, which may cause deafness.

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Explanation of terms

• (i) Parasitism: An association between two organisms of different species in which one (the parasite) lives on or inside the other (the host), obtaining food and shelter from it and harming the host in the process. For example a tapeworm in the human intestine.
• (ii) Commensalism: An association between two organisms of different species in which one (the commensal) benefits (usually for food or shelter) while the other (the host) is neither harmed nor benefited. For example the remora fish attached to a shark, or epiphytes growing on a tree.

(b) Named parasites and hosts

• (i) A fungal parasite of a plant and its host: Puccinia (rust fungus) on wheat/cereal (also acceptable: Phytophthora on Irish potato).
• (ii) A bacterial parasite of humans: Vibrio cholerae (causing cholera) (also acceptable: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella typhi).

(c)(i) Four symptoms of malaria

1. High fever with intermittent chills and shivering.
2. Headache.
3. Body/joint pains and general weakness.
4. Sweating, loss of appetite and sometimes vomiting.

(c)(ii) Six methods of controlling malaria in West Africa

1. Clearing bushes and draining/filling stagnant water to destroy mosquito breeding sites.
2. Spraying breeding waters with oil or larvicides to kill mosquito larvae.
3. Sleeping under insecticide-treated mosquito nets.
4. Using insecticides and mosquito repellents, and screening windows and doors with wire gauze.
5. Introducing larva-eating fish (for example Gambusia/Tilapia) into ponds (biological control).
6. Taking anti-malarial drugs and seeking prompt treatment; and public health education.

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Sexual reproduction is the production of new offspring by the fusion (fertilisation) of two haploid sex cells (gametes), a male gamete and a female gamete, to form a diploid zygote which develops into a new individual.

(b) Five functions of the placenta

• Allows diffusion of oxygen from the mother's blood to the foetus.
• Allows dissolved food (glucose, amino acids, minerals, vitamins) to pass from mother to foetus.
• Removes excretory wastes (carbon dioxide, urea) from the foetus into the mother's blood.
• Secretes hormones (progesterone and oestrogen) that maintain pregnancy.
• Acts as a barrier that prevents the mixing of maternal and foetal blood and keeps out some harmful microbes.

Four functions of the umbilical cord

• Connects the foetus to the placenta.
• Contains the umbilical vein that carries oxygenated, food-laden blood from placenta to foetus.
• Contains umbilical arteries that carry deoxygenated, waste-laden blood from foetus to placenta.
• Provides some support and allows the foetus to move freely in the amniotic fluid.

(c) Four types of placentation in flowering plants

• Marginal placentation
• Axile placentation
• Parietal placentation
• Basal placentation (free-central is also acceptable)

(d) Four conditions necessary for seed germination

• Water (moisture)
• Suitable (warm) temperature
• Oxygen (air)
• Viable, living embryo (with adequate stored food)

Bayanin Amsa

(a)(i) Ecological succession is the gradual and orderly replacement of one community of organisms by another in a given area over a period of time, until a stable climax community is established.

(ii) Four characteristics of ecological succession of plants

• It is a gradual, orderly and progressive process.
• It begins with pioneer species and passes through several intermediate (seral) stages.
• Each stage modifies the environment, making it suitable for the next community.
• It ends in a stable, self-perpetuating climax community.

(b) Four factors which affect population size

• Natality (birth rate): a high birth rate increases population size.
• Mortality (death rate): a high death rate decreases population size.
• Immigration: movement of organisms into the area increases population size.
• Emigration: movement of organisms out of the area decreases population size. (Availability of food, predation and disease also apply.)

(c) Adaptations of tapeworm (Taenia solium) to its habitat in the human gut

• Has hooks and suckers on the scolex (head) for attachment to the gut wall so it is not washed out.
• Has a thick cuticle that resists digestion by the host's enzymes.
• Secretes anti-enzymes to protect itself from being digested.
• Has a long, flat, thin body giving a large surface area for absorbing already-digested food directly through its body wall (no gut needed).
• Is hermaphroditic and produces very many eggs, ensuring survival and spread of the species.
• Can respire anaerobically, coping with the low-oxygen conditions of the gut.

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Main constituents of mammalian blood

• Plasma (liquid matrix)
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• White blood cells (leucocytes)
• Platelets (thrombocytes)

(b) Two functions of each constituent

• Plasma: transports dissolved food (glucose, amino acids), salts, hormones and excretory wastes (urea, carbon dioxide); distributes heat evenly to regulate body temperature.
• Red blood cells: carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues as oxyhaemoglobin; help transport carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
• White blood cells: engulf and destroy invading germs by phagocytosis; produce antibodies and antitoxins for defence against disease.
• Platelets: initiate blood clotting at wounds; help seal cuts to prevent excessive blood loss and entry of pathogens.

(c) Six differences between arteries and veins

(d) Main artery transporting blood to the

• (i) Lung: pulmonary artery
• (ii) Kidney: renal artery