WAEC SSCE - Geography - 2022

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The weathering process that is commonly found in limestone regions is solution. This is because limestone is a type of rock that is easily dissolved in weak acids, such as carbonic acid. As rainwater containing carbon dioxide falls on limestone, it reacts with the rock, causing it to dissolve and create cavities and sinkholes. This process is known as solution weathering and is responsible for the formation of many limestone landscapes, such as caves and underground rivers.

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The type of cloud from which thunderstorms and heavy rain are experienced in the Tropics is cumulo-nimbus. Cumulo-nimbus clouds are large, vertical clouds that have a flat, anvil-shaped top. They are formed by strong upward air currents, which cause water droplets and ice crystals to rise and accumulate in the cloud. Cumulo-nimbus clouds are associated with thunderstorms, heavy rain, lightning, and even tornadoes. In the Tropics, cumulo-nimbus clouds are particularly common because the warm, moist air in the region creates ideal conditions for the formation of these clouds. As the warm, moist air rises, it cools and condenses, forming cumulo-nimbus clouds. These clouds can bring heavy rainfall, which can lead to flooding in some areas. Therefore, the type of cloud from which thunderstorms and heavy rain are experienced in the Tropics is cumulo-nimbus.

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The movement of the earth that causes variation in the length of the day and night is the rotation of the Earth. Rotation refers to the spinning motion of the Earth on its axis, which is an imaginary line passing through the North and South Poles. As the Earth rotates, different parts of its surface face towards or away from the sun, resulting in the occurrence of day and night. The Earth takes approximately 24 hours to complete one full rotation on its axis. During this rotation, as a particular region of the Earth faces towards the sun, it experiences daylight, creating daytime. Conversely, when that region faces away from the sun, it enters the shadowed portion, leading to darkness and nighttime. The rotation of the Earth is responsible for the regular cycle of day and night. However, it's important to note that the variation in the length of the day and night is also influenced by other factors such as the tilt of the Earth's axis and its elliptical orbit around the sun, which give rise to seasonal changes. In summary, it is the rotation of the Earth that causes the variation in the length of the day and night. As the Earth rotates, different parts of the planet are exposed to sunlight or shadow, resulting in the alternating periods of day and night that we experience.

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The major cause of rapid population growth rate in Tropical Africa is the lack of family planning. Family planning refers to the ability of individuals and couples to plan their family size and spacing of children. In many African countries, cultural and religious beliefs, lack of education, limited access to contraceptives, and low status of women make it difficult for individuals and couples to control their family size. As a result, there is a high fertility rate and rapid population growth, which put much pressure on land, exacerbate malnutrition and diseases, and make it difficult to improve living standards. Improving family planning services and education can help slow down the population growth rate and lead to sustainable development in Tropical Africa.

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The growth of NONSO settlement is probably because it is a nodal town. A nodal town is a town or settlement that serves as a central point of connectivity for surrounding areas, with various transportation routes converging in the town. This means that NONSO settlement serves as a hub for the surrounding areas, providing access to goods and services, transportation, and communication networks. As a result, NONSO has experienced increased economic activity, population growth, and urbanization. While other factors such as location and available resources may have contributed to NONSO's growth, its role as a nodal town is likely the primary reason for its continued development. So, the growth of NONSO settlement is probably due to its position as a nodal town, providing connectivity and access to surrounding areas.

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The transport system that is most affected by climatic factors is air transport. This is because air transport is highly dependent on weather conditions such as wind speed and direction, visibility, cloud cover, and turbulence. Bad weather conditions such as storms, heavy rains, fog, or snow can cause flight delays, cancellations, or diversions. In extreme cases, harsh weather conditions can lead to accidents, making air transport the most affected transport system by climatic factors.

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The climatic feature that describes the Equatorial climate is "double maxima rainfall regime." This means that there are two rainy seasons in a year, separated by two dry seasons. The Equatorial climate is typically found in regions close to the equator and is characterized by high temperatures, high humidity, and abundant rainfall throughout the year. This climate is influenced by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is a low-pressure area that moves towards the north and south of the equator with the changing seasons, causing the double maxima rainfall regime.

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The features described, including layers of ash and cinders alternating with lava, a broad base, and steep convex slopes, are associated with a composite cone. A composite cone, also known as a stratovolcano, is a type of volcano that is built through a combination of explosive eruptions and lava flows. It is composed of alternating layers of volcanic ash, cinders, and solidified lava. These layers are formed as a result of the volcano's eruptions, which can be explosive and produce ash, cinders, and pyroclastic materials, as well as effusive eruptions that release lava flows. The broad base of a composite cone refers to its wide footprint or footprint-like shape at the bottom. The steep convex slopes indicate that the sides of the volcano are steep and curve outward, creating a convex shape. This steepness is a result of the alternating layers of ash, cinders, and lava accumulating over time. Composite cones are often found in subduction zone environments where tectonic plates collide, and one plate is forced beneath the other, creating intense volcanic activity. They are typically tall and cone-shaped, such as the famous Mount Fuji in Japan or Mount St. Helens in the United States. In summary, the described features - layers of ash and cinders alternating with lava, a broad base, and steep convex slopes - are characteristic of a composite cone or stratovolcano.

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The statement describes a barchan dune. A barchan dune is a crescent-shaped sand dune that is formed by the action of wind in arid and desert environments. Barchan dunes are formed by the unidirectional wind blowing across a flat surface, depositing sand on the windward side and causing it to migrate across the surface, with the apex of the dune facing downwind. Barchan dunes are common in areas with limited vegetation and a consistent wind direction. They can vary in size, from a few meters to several hundred meters in length. So, the statement describes a barchan dune which is formed from wind deposition in arid and desert environments, and is crescentic in shape.

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The most significant factor that led to the revolution in the Japanese industrial sector is the input of committed and skillful industrial workforce. Japan had a large and highly skilled workforce that was willing to work hard and be innovative in order to drive economic growth. The government also played a key role in promoting and supporting industrial development through policies that encouraged investment in key industries. With a combination of a skilled workforce, government support, and a focus on innovation, Japan was able to rapidly industrialize and become a major economic power in the world. The presence of huge copper mines or vast oil and gas fields or military strength of the countries that aided them did not play as significant of a role in Japan's industrial revolution as the input of its committed and skillful industrial workforce.

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Overpopulation is a situation where the population of an area exceeds the available resources to sustain the population adequately. This means that there are too many people for the resources available such as food, water, and land. It is a state of imbalance where the number of people living in an area is greater than the capacity of that area to support human life. In overpopulated areas, there may be insufficient resources to meet the basic needs of the population, resulting in issues like poverty, malnutrition, and other social problems. Therefore, option (C) is the correct answer.

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The trade liberalization policy of ECOWAS is aimed at promoting economic integration among member states. It is a strategy that involves reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs, quotas, and other restrictions on the movement of goods and services within the region. The goal is to create a larger, more integrated market that can support increased economic growth, job creation, and overall development. By reducing trade barriers, member states can take advantage of the opportunities created by regional trade, which can lead to increased competition, greater specialization, and ultimately, increased efficiency and productivity. So, the trade liberalization policy of ECOWAS is aimed at promoting economic growth and development through increased regional trade integration.

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The lines drawn on maps joining places with equal amounts of cloud cover are called isonephs. Isonephs are similar to isobars and isohyets, which are lines joining places with equal air pressure and equal rainfall, respectively. Isonephs join places with equal cloud cover, meaning that they connect points on a map that have received the same amount of cloud cover. Isonephs are used in meteorology to display cloud coverage data and can help forecasters to predict weather patterns and atmospheric conditions. These lines are usually drawn using a particular interval or step, such as every 10% or 20% of cloud cover. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is isonephs.

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A stack is the landform that is not associated with an advancing shoreline. An advancing shoreline refers to a situation where the shoreline is gradually extending or moving forward due to various processes like deposition of sediment or accretion. In this context, landforms are typically formed by the deposition of sediment as the shoreline advances. A spit is a narrow landform that extends from the shoreline into a body of water. It is formed through longshore drift, where waves and currents deposit sediment along the coastline. Over time, the deposition of sediment builds up the spit, causing it to extend further into the water. A beach is an area of loose particles, such as sand or pebbles, along the shoreline. It is formed through the accumulation of sediment carried by waves and currents. As the shoreline advances, more sediment is deposited, expanding the beach further along the coast. A tombolo is a landform that connects an island to the mainland or another island. It is formed by the deposition of sediment, typically in the form of a sandy or gravelly strip, which connects the landmasses. As the shoreline advances, sediment accumulates and forms the tombolo. However, a stack is a vertical column or pillar of rock that rises from the sea or coastline. It is not directly associated with an advancing shoreline. Stacks are formed through erosion, where waves, wind, and other natural forces gradually wear away the surrounding rock, leaving behind isolated pillars or columns of rock. In summary, while a spit, beach, and tombolo are landforms associated with an advancing shoreline due to the deposition of sediment, a stack is not directly related to an advancing shoreline but rather formed through erosion.

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The sharp pillars hanging from the roof of a cavern in limestone regions are called stalactites. They are formed by mineral-rich water dripping from the cave ceiling and leaving behind tiny mineral deposits. Over time, these deposits accumulate and grow downward, forming the long, pointed structures we know as stalactites. So, stalactites are formed from the top down, while their counterpart structures that grow from the cave floor upward are called stalagmites.

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Block mountains, also known as fault-block mountains, are formed by the uplifting of a section of the Earth's crust along a fault line. As the Earth's tectonic plates move and shift, the rocks on either side of a fault can be pushed up, creating a mountain range. The correct option that best describes the formation of block mountains is the uplifting of crustal block within two parallel faults. When there is tension in the Earth's crust, it can cause two parallel faults to move away from each other, pulling a block of rock upwards in between them. Over time, erosion can wear away the softer rock layers, leaving behind steep-sided mountains or ridges made of harder, more resistant rock formations. Accumulation of materials ejected from within the Earth's crust, solidification of magma within the Earth's crust, and vertical movement of sediments into geosynclines are associated with the formation of other types of mountains, but not block mountains.

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If the map is reduced by half its original size, it means that each unit on the reduced map represents two units on the original map. Therefore, the scale of the new map would be twice the scale of the original map. For example, if the original map had a scale of 1:50,000, the new map after being reduced by half would have a scale of 1:100,000. Similarly, if the original map had a scale of 1:100,000, the new map after being reduced by half would have a scale of 1:200,000. Based on the options given, the correct answer is 1:100,000.

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One of the major problems faced by manufacturing industries in Tropical Africa is the inadequate availability of raw materials. Raw materials are the basic resources required to produce goods. In many cases, manufacturing industries heavily rely on these raw materials to create their products. However, in Tropical Africa, there is often a lack of access to a diverse range of raw materials necessary for various industries. This scarcity can pose significant challenges for manufacturing companies as they may struggle to source the materials they need to produce goods efficiently and competitively. It can lead to increased costs, delays in production, and limited product variety. Therefore, the inadequate availability of raw materials stands as a significant hurdle for manufacturing industries in Tropical Africa.

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The leading industrial zone in the West African sub-region is the Accra-Tema industrial zone of Ghana. This area is considered the most important industrial center in the region because it is home to many large manufacturing industries, such as textiles, chemicals, food processing, and metal fabrication. The location of the Accra-Tema industrial zone is strategic because it is close to the main port of Ghana, which facilitates the importation of raw materials and exportation of finished goods. Additionally, the Ghanaian government has created policies that encourage the growth of the industrial sector in the country, such as the establishment of export processing zones, which attract foreign investment and increase the competitiveness of Ghana's industries.

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The term pyroclastic best describes fragmented materials ejected by volcanoes. Pyroclastic materials, also known as tephra, are fragments of volcanic rock and lava that are ejected during a volcanic eruption. These materials can vary in size from fine ash particles to large boulders and can travel long distances depending on the force of the eruption. They can also form pyroclastic flows, which are rapidly moving currents of hot gas and rock fragments that flow down the side of a volcano.

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The reason that accounts for the low traffic on rivers in Africa is the presence of rapids and waterfalls. Rapids and waterfalls pose obstacles and hazards to navigation and make it difficult and dangerous for boats and ships to travel along the river. As a result, the use of rivers as a transportation network is limited, and other modes of transportation such as roads and railways are preferred. In addition, many rivers in Africa have shallow channels, which further limit their navigability. While fishing is an important activity along many rivers in Africa, it does not account for the low traffic on rivers. Wide valleys and a change of color during rainy seasons are not factors that affect the traffic on rivers in Africa.

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To determine which region exported the highest tonnes of rice using the dot map, we need to compare the number of dots in each region. Each dot on the map represents 20,000 tonnes of rice. By counting the number of dots in each region, we can calculate the total amount of rice exported by each region. From the dot map, we can see that region R has the highest number of dots, which corresponds to a total of 8 dots. This means that region R exported 8 x 20,000 = 160,000 tonnes of rice in 2009, which is the highest among all four regions. Therefore, the region that exported the highest tonnes of rice in 2009 is region R.

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The characteristics of igneous rocks are that they are crystalline and originate from molten magma. Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification and cooling of molten magma or lava. During the cooling process, minerals in the magma begin to crystallize and form a solid rock. This is why igneous rocks are typically made up of interlocking crystals. Stratification refers to the layering of sedimentary rocks, which is not a characteristic of igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have undergone a change in texture, mineral composition, or both due to heat and/or pressure, and are not necessarily related to igneous rocks. Therefore, the correct pair of characteristics for igneous rocks is III and IV only.

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Political instability in the countries is a major hindrance to foreign investment in tropical African countries. This is because political instability creates an uncertain business environment, making it difficult for foreign investors to make long-term plans and investments. Political instability can take many forms, including coups, civil wars, corruption, and unpredictable policy changes. These factors can create significant risks for foreign investors, who may be hesitant to invest in countries where their investments may be subject to expropriation, nationalization, or other forms of political interference. Moreover, political instability can also lead to social unrest, which can disrupt business operations and make it difficult to attract and retain skilled labor. This, in turn, can reduce the competitiveness of local industries and discourage foreign investment. Therefore, political instability is a major factor that must be addressed if tropical African countries are to attract foreign investment and promote economic growth. Countries that can establish stable political environments, enforce the rule of law, and provide a supportive business climate are more likely to attract foreign investment and achieve long-term economic success.

Bayanin Amsa

The type of mountain that is also called the "mountain of denudation" is the residual mountain. Residual mountains are formed through a geological process known as denudation, which involves the wearing away or removal of the surrounding rocks and sediments by erosion. Over a long period of time, various erosional forces like wind, water, and ice gradually erode the surrounding areas, leaving behind the more resistant rock formations that make up residual mountains. These mountains are typically characterized by steep slopes and rugged terrain. They often have exposed bedrock and showcase the underlying geological structures. Residual mountains can be found in areas where the surrounding landscape has undergone significant erosion, such as plateaus or regions with high rainfall and strong erosional forces. The term "mountain of denudation" highlights the fact that these mountains are primarily formed as a result of the denudation process, where the surrounding rocks and sediments have been stripped away, leaving behind the more resistant remnants that form the mountain peaks and ridges.

Bayanin Amsa

Deflation is a process of wind erosion. It occurs when wind removes loose, fine-grained particles such as sand, silt, and clay from the surface of the Earth. As the wind moves across the ground, it picks up loose particles and carries them away, leaving behind a depression in the ground. Deflation can also lead to the formation of sand dunes, which are hills of sand that are shaped by the wind. When the wind slows down, the sand particles fall out of suspension and are deposited on the ground. This process is known as deposition. The other options listed, such as saltation, solution, and traction, are also processes of wind erosion but they are not the correct answer to the question. Saltation is the movement of particles in a bouncing motion along the ground, while solution involves the dissolution of minerals by wind-carried moisture. Traction is the process of large particles being dragged along the ground by the wind.

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The factor of population growth from the options listed is "Birth rate." Birth rate refers to the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given period. A higher birth rate than death rate leads to population growth. When the birth rate is higher than the death rate, more people are being born than are dying, which means the population is increasing. Therefore, birth rate is an important factor of population growth.

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(a) Volcanic intrusion is the process by which molten rock (magma) is injected into pre-existing rocks, solidifies and forms an igneous rock mass.

(b) A block mountain is a type of mountain that is characterized by steep, uplifted blocks of rock that are bounded by faults or fractures. These blocks are usually composed of hard and resistant rocks that have been pushed up or uplifted by tectonic forces. Block mountains are formed when large blocks of rock are uplifted and tilted along fault lines, creating a series of steep escarpments and ridges.

(c) Three landforms that are associated with intrusive volcanic activities are:

• Batholiths: These are large, irregularly shaped masses of intrusive igneous rock that are exposed over an area of at least 100 square kilometers. They are formed when large volumes of magma solidify beneath the Earth's surface and are exposed after millions of years of erosion and uplift.
• Dikes: These are tabular, sheet-like intrusive bodies of igneous rock that cut across the layers of pre-existing rock. They are formed when magma is injected into fractures or cracks in the surrounding rock and solidifies, forming a vertical or steeply inclined wall-like structure.
• Sills: These are sheet-like bodies of intrusive igneous rock that are parallel to the layers of pre-existing rock. They are formed when magma is injected into horizontal cracks or bedding planes in the surrounding rock and solidifies, forming a flat or gently sloping layer of igneous rock.

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(a) Urbanization refers to the process of people moving from rural areas to urban areas, while population density refers to the number of people living in a particular area per unit of land. In other words, urbanization refers to the movement of people to urban areas, while population density refers to the concentration of people in a given area.

(b) Four problems created by urbanization in Tropical Africa include overcrowding, inadequate housing, poor sanitation, and increased crime rates. With rapid urbanization, there is a significant increase in the number of people living in cities, which puts pressure on housing and other infrastructure. As a result, many people end up living in slums, which lack basic services such as clean water, sanitation facilities, and healthcare. This leads to poor health outcomes and increased risk of disease outbreaks. Additionally, rapid urbanization can also lead to increased crime rates due to high levels of poverty and unemployment.

(c) The problems highlighted in (b) can be solved in several ways. First, governments can invest in affordable housing and infrastructure to reduce overcrowding and improve living conditions. Second, urban planning can be improved to ensure that cities are designed to meet the needs of residents. This can include the provision of green spaces, public transportation, and other amenities that make urban living more attractive. Third, public health interventions can be implemented to improve sanitation and access to healthcare. Finally, addressing the root causes of poverty and unemployment can help to reduce crime rates and promote economic growth.

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(a) Draw a sketch map of Nigeria

Source: Maps-Nigeria

(b) Four benefits derived from the Hydro-Electric Power projects in Nigeria are:

1. Increase in electricity generation: The hydro-electric power projects have contributed significantly to the increase in electricity generation in Nigeria, thereby meeting the power needs of industries and households.
2. Development of rural areas: The hydro-electric power projects have led to the development of rural areas where they are located. This is because the power generated is used for irrigation, which in turn leads to agricultural development and improved standard of living of the rural people.
3. Boost in industrial growth: The hydro-electric power projects have also contributed to the growth of industries in Nigeria, as many of them depend on electricity generated from these projects for their operations.
4. Job creation: The construction and maintenance of hydro-electric power projects have created job opportunities for both skilled and unskilled labor.

(c) Three advantages of seaports in Nigeria are:

1. Economic development: Seaports serve as major gateways for international trade, and as such, they contribute significantly to the economic development of Nigeria by promoting exports and imports.
2. Employment opportunities: Seaports provide employment opportunities to a large number of people, including dockworkers, stevedores, ship handlers, and customs officers, among others.
3. Transportation: Seaports serve as major transportation hubs for goods and commodities, which are transported via waterways to various parts of the country. This helps to reduce transportation costs and promotes efficiency in the movement of goods.

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(a) The three processes of wind transportation in an arid region are:

1. Suspension: very fine particles, such as dust and silt, are lifted and carried within the air for long distances.
2. Saltation: sand-sized particles are lifted briefly and moved in a series of short hops or bounces.
3. Surface creep (traction): coarse sand grains and small pebbles are rolled or pushed along the ground by the impact of saltating grains and by the wind.

(b) Deflation hollow

A deflation hollow, also called a blow-out, is a broad, shallow, saucer-shaped depression produced when wind removes loose, dry, fine materials from an area of desert surface.

Characteristics

• It is a wide, shallow basin or depression with a concave floor.
• Its sides are generally gently sloping, though the margins may become steep where wind undercuts loose material.
• The floor is commonly covered by coarse pebbles and stones left behind after finer particles have been removed. This residual stony layer is called desert pavement.
• Where deflation continues to the water table, the floor may become damp or contain water, producing an oasis or marshy patch.
• Deflation hollows vary greatly in size, from small blow-outs to very large basins.

Mode of formation

1. In an arid region, a surface of loose, dry sand, silt and dust is exposed because vegetation is sparse.
2. Strong winds pick up and carry away the finest particles by suspension and saltation.
3. Continued removal of material lowers the ground surface and produces a slight depression.
4. The depression traps and concentrates the wind, so that more loose material is removed from it and the hollow becomes wider and deeper.
5. Coarse pebbles, which are too heavy for the wind to carry, remain on the floor as desert pavement. Deepening may cease when moist material or the water table is reached.

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(a) The two crops that are commonly cultivated under the bush fallowing system of farming in Nigeria are yam and cassava.

(b) The bush fallowing system of farming in Nigeria is characterized by the following:

1. It involves clearing a piece of land by cutting down trees and bushes.
2. The land is then left uncultivated for several years to allow natural regeneration of the vegetation.
3. After several years, the land is again cleared and crops are planted.
4. The system is usually practiced by small-scale farmers.
5. The system allows for the conservation of soil nutrients and improves soil fertility.

(c) The disadvantages of bush fallowing system of farming in Nigeria include the following:

1. It requires large areas of land to be cleared for farming, which can lead to deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
2. The long periods of fallow can lead to a loss of income for farmers.
3. The system can be labor-intensive, as it requires clearing and planting of new areas every few years.
4. The system may not be suitable for crops that require continuous cultivation, such as vegetables and fruits.

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(a)

(b) Three problems facing development in Lagos State are:

1. Overpopulation: Lagos State is one of the most densely populated states in Nigeria, with a population of over 20 million people. This puts a strain on resources and infrastructure, leading to issues such as traffic congestion, inadequate housing, and inadequate access to healthcare and education.
2. Inadequate infrastructure: Lagos State faces challenges with inadequate infrastructure, particularly in terms of transportation, power supply, and water supply. This can limit economic growth and make it difficult for people to access basic services.
3. Environmental degradation: Lagos State is also facing environmental challenges, including air and water pollution, deforestation, and soil erosion. This can have negative impacts on the health and wellbeing of residents, as well as on the local economy.

(c) Three potential solutions to these problems are:

1. Improved urban planning: To address overpopulation and inadequate infrastructure, Lagos State could benefit from better urban planning that emphasizes sustainable development, such as creating more green spaces and pedestrian walkways, and promoting public transportation and renewable energy.
2. Investment in infrastructure: Lagos State could also benefit from increased investment in infrastructure, particularly in terms of transportation, power supply, and water supply. This could include building new roads, bridges, and public transportation systems, as well as investing in renewable energy and water conservation technologies.
3. Environmental protection and restoration: To address environmental degradation, Lagos State could implement policies and programs aimed at protecting and restoring the environment. This could include stricter regulations on pollution, reforestation efforts, and programs to promote sustainable agriculture and land use practices.

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(a) Compound bar graph

Scale on the vertical axis: 2 cm represents 20 students. Each bar represents a year and is divided into sections for Schools A, B and C.

(b)

(i) Total admission to School A, 2001 to 2003

\[40 + 60 + 50 = 150\]

Answer: 150 students.

(ii) Total admission to the three schools in 2003

\[50 + 40 + 40 = 130\]

Answer: 130 students.

(iii) Difference between total admission to Schools A and C

\[\text{School A} = 40 + 60 + 50 = 150\]

\[\text{School C} = 60 + 30 + 40 = 130\]

\[150 - 130 = 20\]

Answer: 20 students.

(c) A simple bar chart has one undivided bar for each item or category, whereas a compound bar chart has each bar subdivided into components to show two or more related sets of data.

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(a) Four modes of transportation:

1. Road transportation: This involves the movement of people and goods using vehicles on roads and highways.

2. Air transportation: This refers to the transportation of people and goods by aircraft, allowing for fast and long-distance travel.

3. Water transportation: This includes transportation by ships, boats, or barges on rivers, lakes, and oceans, facilitating the movement of goods and people.

4. Rail transportation: This mode involves the use of trains and railway networks for transporting passengers and freight over land.

(b) Five reasons for the construction of railways in developing countries:

1. Efficient transportation: Railways provide a reliable and efficient mode of transportation, allowing for the movement of large quantities of goods and people over long distances with minimal delays.

2. Economic development: Railways contribute to economic growth by facilitating trade and commerce. They enable the transportation of raw materials, finished products, and agricultural produce, supporting industries and fostering economic activities.

3. Employment opportunities: The construction and operation of railways create job opportunities, both directly and indirectly, such as for railway workers, engineers, maintenance personnel, and those involved in related industries.

4. Connectivity and accessibility: Railways connect different regions within a country, linking rural areas to urban centers and promoting accessibility to markets, education, healthcare, and other essential services.

5. Environmental benefits: Rail transportation is generally more environmentally friendly compared to other modes, as trains produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions per tonne of freight or passenger than road or air transport. This can help reduce pollution and mitigate climate change.

(c) Three measures to improve rail transportation in developing countries:

1. Infrastructure development: Investing in the expansion and modernization of railway infrastructure, including tracks, stations, signaling systems, and rolling stock, can enhance the efficiency and capacity of rail transportation.

2. Maintenance and safety: Regular maintenance and safety inspections are crucial to ensure the reliability and safety of rail networks. Adequate funding and training for maintenance crews, along with the implementation of safety protocols, can improve the overall performance of rail transportation.

3. Integration and intermodal connectivity: Improving integration with other modes of transportation, such as road, air, and water, can enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of overall transportation systems. Developing intermodal terminals and seamless transfer facilities can facilitate the smooth movement of passengers and goods between different modes. Implementing these measures can contribute to the improvement of rail transportation in developing countries, promoting economic growth, connectivity, and sustainable mobility.

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(a) Four characteristics of local craft industries are:

1. Handmade Production: Local craft industries typically involve the production of goods and products that are created by hand. Craftsmen and artisans use traditional methods and techniques, often passed down through generations, to create unique and culturally significant items.
2. Cultural Significance: Local craft industries often reflect the cultural heritage and traditions of a specific region or community. The products created by these industries showcase the artistic expressions, craftsmanship, and indigenous knowledge of the local people.
3. Small-Scale Operations: Local craft industries are usually characterized by small-scale operations. They are often run by individuals, families, or small groups of artisans who work within their own communities or workshops. This small-scale nature allows for personalized attention to detail and a focus on quality craftsmanship.
4. Sustainable and Natural Materials: Local craft industries often prioritize the use of sustainable and natural materials. Artisans tend to source materials from their immediate surroundings, such as wood, fibers, clay, or recycled materials, reducing their ecological impact and promoting environmentally friendly practices.

(b) Three limitations of local craft industries include:

1. Limited Market Reach: Local craft industries often face challenges in reaching larger markets due to their localized nature. Their products may have limited exposure and accessibility beyond the immediate community or region, making it difficult to tap into broader customer bases.
2. Lack of Infrastructure and Resources: Many local craft industries operate in areas with limited infrastructure and resources. This can hinder their ability to scale up production, access modern technologies, or efficiently distribute their products to wider markets.
3. Economic Viability: Local craft industries may struggle with economic viability and competitiveness in a global market. Mass-produced and cheaper alternatives from larger manufacturing industries or imports often pose challenges in terms of pricing, market demand, and volume of production.

(c) Five factors that have contributed to the high volume of trade between developed and Tropical African countries are:

1. Natural Resources: Tropical Africa is rich in natural resources such as minerals, timber, agricultural products, and precious metals. These resources are in high demand globally, attracting trade partnerships with developed countries that require these commodities for their industries and consumer markets.
2. Market Access: Developed countries often possess strong trade networks, infrastructure, and established markets. This enables them to provide access to broader consumer bases and facilitate trade relationships with Tropical African countries, opening up opportunities for exports and imports.
3. Economic Interdependence: Developed and Tropical African countries have developed economic interdependencies, with each region having resources, skills, or products that the other requires. This interdependence fosters trade relations and the exchange of goods and services for mutual economic benefit.
4. Investment and Technology Transfer: Developed countries often invest in Tropical African countries, bringing capital, technology, and expertise. This investment helps develop industries, improves production processes, and enhances the capacity of Tropical African countries to engage in international trade.
5. International Agreements and Partnerships: International agreements, such as trade agreements, preferential trade arrangements, and economic partnerships, have facilitated trade between developed and Tropical African countries. These agreements aim to reduce barriers, promote economic cooperation, and provide favorable trading conditions, encouraging increased trade volumes.

In summary,

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Two examples of volcanic mountains in the world are:

• Mount Fuji in Japan
• Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania

(b) Composite cones, also known as stratovolcanoes, are formed through a combination of explosive and effusive eruptions. The process can be described with the following annotated diagram:

1. A layer of ash, lava, and other volcanic materials is deposited during an explosive eruption.
2. Lava flows out of the central vent and spreads outwards, forming layers of hardened lava.
3. The process repeats, with alternating layers of ash and lava being deposited, until the cone reaches its final height.
4. The cone may also experience flank eruptions, where lava flows out of a vent on the side of the cone instead of the central vent.

(c) Landslides can be caused by various factors, including:

1. Heavy rainfall: When rainfall is excessive, the ground may become saturated with water, causing it to become unstable and prone to landslides.
2. Steep slopes: Slopes that are too steep may not be able to support their own weight and may collapse, causing a landslide.
3. Human activity: Activities such as deforestation, mining, and construction can destabilize slopes and increase the likelihood of landslides.

Bayanin Amsa

(a) An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) interacting with each other and their non-living environment (air, water, and soil).

(b) The main components of an ecosystem are:

• Abiotic factors: These are the non-living components of the ecosystem, such as water, air, and soil. Examples of abiotic factors include rocks, sunlight, and temperature.
• Biotic factors: These are the living components of the ecosystem, such as plants, animals, and microorganisms. Examples of biotic factors include trees, birds, and bacteria.

Examples of abiotic components:

• Water: This is an important abiotic component of aquatic ecosystems, and it provides a habitat for fish, aquatic plants, and other organisms.
• Soil: This is an important abiotic component of terrestrial ecosystems, and it provides a habitat for plants, insects, and microorganisms.

Examples of biotic components:

• Plants: These are primary producers in most ecosystems, and they provide food and shelter for animals. Examples include grasses, trees, and algae.
• Animals: These are consumers in the ecosystem, and they help to regulate populations of other organisms. Examples include insects, mammals, and birds.

(c) The components of an ecosystem are interdependent in many ways. Two examples are:

• Nutrient cycling: Biotic components of the ecosystem, such as plants and microorganisms, require certain nutrients to survive. These nutrients are provided by abiotic components, such as soil and water. As biotic components consume these nutrients, they release waste products that are broken down by other biotic components and returned to the abiotic environment. This cycle of nutrient uptake, consumption, and recycling is essential for the survival of the ecosystem.
• Predation: In many ecosystems, animals consume other animals as a source of food. This predation helps to regulate the populations of different species, preventing any one species from becoming too dominant. If the predator population declines, prey populations can grow unchecked, which can lead to overgrazing, habitat destruction, and other negative effects on the ecosystem. Therefore, the biotic components of the ecosystem are interdependent on each other for survival.

Bayanin Amsa

(a)

(i) Three factors that influence weathering are:

1. Climate - the type and amount of precipitation, temperature, and wind affect the rate and type of weathering.
2. Rock type - some rocks are more resistant to weathering than others due to their mineral composition and structure.
3. Vegetation - plants can affect weathering by their roots breaking apart rocks and by producing organic acids that dissolve minerals.

(ii) Two effects of landslides are:

1. Destruction of property and infrastructure - landslides can cause extensive damage to homes, roads, and other structures in their path.
2. Loss of life - landslides can be deadly, particularly if they occur in densely populated areas.

(b)

(i) Exfoliation is a process of mechanical weathering where rock layers peel away from each other due to the release of pressure. This process is common in areas with a large daily temperature range, such as deserts, where the rocks expand and contract due to temperature changes. Over time, this expansion and contraction can cause the outer layers of rock to crack and flake off, leaving behind smooth, rounded boulders and rock formations.

(ii) Frost action, also known as freeze-thaw weathering, is a process of mechanical weathering where water seeps into cracks in rocks and then freezes. When water freezes, it expands, putting pressure on the rock and causing it to crack. Over time, repeated cycles of freezing and thawing can cause the rock to break apart into smaller pieces. Frost action is particularly effective in regions with frequent freeze-thaw cycles, such as mountainous areas and regions with a temperate climate.

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Identification and labelling of features

The required annotations are shown on the map extract below. The labels are placed directly beside the appropriate features.

1. PTS: the spot height/Primary Trigonometrical Station of 1460 ft.
2. CL: the col, the low saddle between two neighbouring hills.
3. GS: the gentle slope, identified by widely spaced contour lines.
4. ARS: the northern area enclosed by contours higher than 1900 ft.
5. CF: the north-western confluence, where two streams join.

(b) Gradient along A-B, using the metric method

Height at A = 2000 ft
Height at B = 1100 ft

Vertical interval:

\[2000 - 1100 = 900\text{ ft}\]

Since \(1\text{ ft}=0.3048\text{ m}\):

\[900\times0.3048=274.32\text{ m}\]

Length of A-B on the map = \(12\text{ cm}\).

At a scale of \(1:100,000\), \(1\text{ cm}\) represents \(1\text{ km}\). Therefore:

\[\text{Horizontal equivalent}=12\text{ cm}\times1\text{ km}=12\text{ km}=12,000\text{ m}\]

\[\text{Gradient}=\frac{\text{vertical interval}}{\text{horizontal equivalent}}=\frac{274.32}{12,000}\]

\[=\frac{1}{43.74}\approx\boxed{1\text{ in }44}\]

(c) Reasons why FUTUK is likely to be more important than Lungo

1. FUTUK has a market or trading centre, indicating that it performs a commercial function.
2. There is a school at FUTUK, so it provides an educational service.
3. FUTUK is served by a minor road, whereas Lungo is linked mainly by footpaths; FUTUK is therefore more accessible.
4. FUTUK has a larger and more densely built-up settlement area than Lungo.
5. FUTUK has more public facilities and functions, while Lungo is mainly a small rural village.

Bayanin Amsa

(a) Reasons temperature decreases with height in the troposphere

1. The atmosphere is heated mainly from below. The Earth's surface absorbs incoming solar radiation and reradiates heat as terrestrial radiation. Air nearest the ground is therefore warmed most directly, while air higher up receives less of this heat.
2. Terrestrial radiation decreases with altitude. As distance from the heated land or sea surface increases, the amount of long-wave radiation available to warm the air becomes less; consequently, upper air is cooler.
3. Expansion of rising air causes adiabatic cooling. Atmospheric pressure decreases with height. When air rises into lower pressure, it expands, using its internal heat energy in the process, and its temperature falls.
4. There is less water vapour, dust and other heat-retaining materials aloft. Most water vapour, dust and carbon dioxide are concentrated in the lower troposphere. These absorb and retain outgoing terrestrial radiation, so the lower layers are warmer than the drier, cleaner air at greater heights.

(b) Formation of orographic rainfall

Orographic, or relief, rainfall occurs when a mass of warm, moist air is forced to rise over a hill or mountain barrier.

1. Moist onshore wind reaches the windward slope of a mountain.
2. The mountain forces the air to rise. As it rises, pressure falls and the air expands and cools adiabatically.
3. On reaching its dew point, the water vapour condenses around condensation nuclei to form clouds.
4. Continued uplift produces thick cloud and rain falls on the windward slope.
5. After crossing the summit, the air has lost much of its moisture. It descends the leeward slope, becomes compressed and warms adiabatically.
6. The descending air has a lower relative humidity and produces little or no rain. The dry leeward area is called a rain-shadow region.