JAMB UTME - Music - 2025

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A standard string quartet consists of 2 violins, 1 viola, and 1 cello. This combination has been the defining chamber music ensemble since the Classical period, established by composers such as Joseph Haydn (often called the "father of the string quartet"), Mozart, and Beethoven.

The two violins are distinguished as first violin (which usually carries the melody) and second violin (which often plays a supporting or counter-melodic role). The viola provides the inner harmony, and the cello supplies the bass line and harmonic foundation.

This specific combination was chosen because it provides a complete four-part harmony with a balanced range from high to low, while maintaining a unified timbral quality since all four instruments belong to the same family.

Note that the double bass is not part of a string quartet. A string ensemble that includes a double bass alongside violins, viola, and cello would be a string quintet or part of a larger formation.

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The text "Sing ye choirs of angels / Sing to God on high" is a hymn text that must be matched to the correct tonic sol-fa notation. The key is to align each syllable of text with its corresponding sol-fa note and rhythm.

Counting the syllables: "Sing ye choirs of an-gels" gives six syllables, and "Sing to God on high" gives five syllables, for a total of eleven syllable-sounds across the two lines.

The correct representation is m:m|m:f|s:-|m:-|f:f|r:t|d:-|-:-||. In this notation, each syllable maps to one sol-fa note in a simple, hymn-like rhythm:

• "Sing" = m, "ye" = m
• "choirs" = m, "of" = f
• "an-" = s (held: s:-)
• "-gels" = m (held: m:-)
• "Sing" = f, "to" = f
• "God" = r, "on" = t (ti)
• "high" = d (held: d:-, -:-)

The melody moves stepwise and by small intervals, characteristic of a straightforward hymn tune. The held notes at the ends of phrases (indicated by ":-") give the natural breathing points in the text. The other options contain dotted rhythms, extra notes, or rhythmic subdivisions that do not match this simple hymn setting.

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The Nigerian National Anthem, "Arise, O Compatriots," is organised into distinct stanzas (verses), each with the same number of lines and the same metrical pattern. This makes its musical form stanzaic. In stanzaic form, the same melody is repeated for each stanza of text, much like a hymn or folk song.

The other options describe different musical concepts. Ternary form (ABA) is a three-part structure where the opening section returns after a contrasting middle section. Responsorial form involves a call-and-response pattern between a leader and a group. Allegro is a tempo marking meaning "fast" and is not a musical form at all.

For examination purposes, remember that anthems and hymns that repeat the same tune for successive verses are typically classified as stanzaic in form.

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Umoja is a celebrated traditional dance group and stage production from South Africa. The name "Umoja" means "unity" or "togetherness" in Swahili, and the group's performances showcase a wide range of traditional South African dance styles, music, and cultural heritage. The Umoja show has toured internationally and is known for its vibrant choreography that traces the history and diversity of South African dance traditions, from traditional Zulu, Xhosa, and Ndebele dances to contemporary township styles.

The production originated in Soweto, South Africa, and has become one of the country's most recognised cultural exports in the performing arts. It is firmly identified with South Africa, not Uganda, Ivory Coast, or Togo.

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A triad is a three-note chord built by stacking thirds. Triads come in four qualities: major, minor, augmented, and diminished. Each quality is defined by the specific combination of intervals between the root, third, and fifth.

The notation shown presents a triad in root position on the treble staff. The bottom note is C (on the first ledger line below the staff), the middle note is E (on the first line of the staff), and the top note is G-sharp, indicated by the sharp sign on the second line. This gives the notes C - E - G#.

To determine the quality, examine the intervals between the notes:

• From C to E is a major third (4 semitones).
• From E to G# is also a major third (4 semitones).
• From C to G# is an augmented fifth (8 semitones).

An augmented triad is built from two consecutive major thirds, producing an augmented fifth between the root and the top note. This is exactly what the chord C - E - G# demonstrates. The sharp raises the fifth from a perfect fifth (G) to an augmented fifth (G#), which is the defining characteristic of the augmented quality.

For comparison:

• A major triad (C - E - G) has a major third plus a minor third, giving a perfect fifth.
• A minor triad (C - E\(\flat\) - G) has a minor third plus a major third, also giving a perfect fifth.
• A diminished triad (C - E\(\flat\) - G\(\flat\)) has two minor thirds, giving a diminished fifth.

Since this triad contains two stacked major thirds and spans an augmented fifth from root to top note, its quality is augmented.

When identifying triad quality in an exam, always count the semitones between each pair of adjacent notes: major third = 4 semitones, minor third = 3 semitones. Two major thirds stacked means augmented; two minor thirds means diminished; major then minor means major; minor then major means minor.

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The stave shows a treble clef with a whole note positioned on the fourth space, which corresponds to E in the treble clef. A flat accidental (♭) is placed immediately before the note, lowering it by a semitone to E flat (E♭).

The question asks which pitch sounds the same as the written note. This is an enharmonic equivalence question. On a piano or any equal-temperament instrument, E♭ and D♯ occupy the same key and produce the same frequency. Since D♯ is the enharmonic spelling of E♭, the pitch sounds the same as D (understood here as D♯, the sharp enharmonic).

Neither E, E flat (which is the note itself, not an enharmonic equivalent), nor D flat share the same pitch as E♭. D♯ (enharmonically D raised by a semitone) is the correct match.

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The passage is written in D major (one sharp in the key signature) with common time. Analysing each vertical sonority from left to right:

Chord 1: The bass note is D, and the upper voices sound F# and A. These are the root, third, and fifth of a D major triad in root position, giving Ia.

Chord 2: The bass note is A, and the upper voices sound C# and E. These are the root, third, and fifth of an A major triad (the dominant of D major) in root position, giving Va.

Chord 3: The notes again form an A major triad in root position with A in the bass, giving another Va.

Chord 4: The passage returns to D in the bass with F# and A above, producing a D major triad in root position, Ia.

The complete chord progression is therefore Ia - Va - Va - Ia, a straightforward tonic-dominant-dominant-tonic pattern that establishes and confirms the key of D major through the strongest harmonic relationship in tonal music.

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The Ekpo masquerade (also known as Ekpo society masquerade) is a traditional masquerade tradition common among the Ibibio people of Akwa Ibom State in southeastern Nigeria. The Ekpo society is a secret society that uses masquerades to enforce social order, honour ancestors, and maintain moral discipline within the community. The masks used in Ekpo masquerades range from serene, beautiful faces (representing benevolent spirits) to grotesque, distorted faces (representing malevolent spirits or those who lived badly).

The Ekpo masquerade plays an important role in Ibibio culture as a form of social control, spiritual communication, and artistic expression. It is also found among the closely related Annang and Efik peoples of the same region.

The Eggon people of Nasarawa State, the Agatu of Benue State, and the Urhobo of Delta State each have their own distinct masquerade traditions, but the Ekpo masquerade is specifically associated with the Ibibio.

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The passage is written in treble clef with no sharps or flats in the key signature, which indicates C major. The melody moves stepwise through notes of the C major scale and resolves on C.

Transposing up by one tone (two semitones) shifts every pitch up by a whole step. The tonic moves from C to D, giving the key of D major. D major has two sharps (F# and C#) in its key signature.

To verify: C + 1 tone = D, so C major transposed up one tone = D major.

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The Gulum (also known as gurmi) is a traditional two-stringed plucked lute from Northern Nigeria, used primarily among the Hausa people. Because it produces sound through the vibration of stretched strings, it is classified as a chordophone in the Hornbostel-Sachs system of instrument classification.

The Hornbostel-Sachs system categorises instruments into four main families:

• Chordophones produce sound from vibrating strings (e.g., guitar, violin, gulum).
• Membranophones produce sound from a vibrating stretched membrane or skin (e.g., drums such as the dundun or bata).
• Aerophones produce sound from vibrating air (e.g., flute, trumpet, algaita).
• Idiophones produce sound from the vibration of the instrument's own body (e.g., shekere, agogo bells).

Since the gulum uses plucked strings to generate its sound, it falls firmly in the chordophone category.

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This question tests the ability to identify the type of cadence in a given chord progression. A cadence is a harmonic progression of at least two chords that ends a musical phrase, section, or piece. The four standard cadences tested at this level are: perfect (V-I), imperfect (ending on V), plagal (IV-I), and deceptive (V-vi).

The chord progression is written on a grand staff in the key of B-flat major (two flats in the key signature: B-flat and E-flat). Reading the notes in the bass and treble clefs together, the progression moves through chords built on scale degrees of B-flat major and ends on the dominant chord (chord V), which is F major (F-A-C).

Any cadence that ends on the dominant chord (V), regardless of the chord that precedes it, is classified as an imperfect cadence (also called a half cadence). The defining feature is that the phrase comes to rest on V rather than resolving to the tonic. This gives the listener a sense of incompleteness, as though the music is pausing mid-sentence and expecting something more to follow.

The other cadence types can be ruled out:

• A perfect cadence moves from V to I, ending on the tonic chord (B-flat major). The progression here does not end on the tonic.
• A plagal cadence moves from IV to I, also ending on the tonic. Again, the final chord here is not the tonic.
• A deceptive cadence moves from V to vi (or another unexpected chord that is not the tonic). Here the final chord is V itself, not a resolution away from V.

Since the progression ends on the dominant chord (V) without resolving to the tonic, the cadence is imperfect.

When identifying cadences in an exam, always look at the last two chords of the progression and determine their scale degrees. If the final chord is the dominant (V), the cadence is imperfect, no matter which chord precedes it.

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Swing Low, Sweet Chariot is one of the most well-known examples of a negro spiritual (also called African American spiritual). Negro spirituals are religious folk songs that originated among enslaved African Americans in the United States, primarily during the 18th and 19th centuries. They blend African musical traditions with Christian hymn texts and served as expressions of faith, suffering, hope, and, in some cases, coded messages about escape from slavery.

Swing Low, Sweet Chariot references the biblical story of the prophet Elijah being taken to heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kings 2:11). Its lyrics express a longing for deliverance and heavenly rest. The song was first publicly performed by the Fisk Jubilee Singers in the 1870s, which helped bring negro spirituals to international attention.

The other options are all secular dance forms: a tango is an Argentine partner dance in duple metre; a cha-cha-cha is a Cuban dance derived from the mambo; and a bolero is a slow Latin dance of Spanish or Cuban origin. None of these is a religious vocal genre.

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An incantation is a set of words, often chanted or spoken rhythmically, that are believed to have magical or supernatural effects. The term comes from the Latin incantare, meaning "to chant" or "to bewitch." In many African and global musical traditions, incantations are used in rituals, ceremonies, and spiritual practices where the spoken or sung word is thought to invoke spiritual power or bring about a desired result.

The other options do not fit this definition. Whistling is simply the production of sound by forcing air through a small opening, typically the lips. Heaving refers to a physical act of lifting or pulling, with no connection to magical speech. A recitative is a vocal style in opera and oratorio that imitates the natural inflections of speech and is used for dialogue or narration, not for magical purposes.

When you encounter questions about musical or cultural terminology related to magic or ritual, remember that incantation specifically denotes words with supposed magical power.

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The time signature of a piece is determined by counting the number of beats in each bar and identifying the beat unit. Examining the bars in this tune:

• Bar 1 contains a dotted minim (dotted half note), which is worth 3 crotchet beats.
• Bar 2 contains a crotchet, two quavers, and another crotchet, totalling 3 crotchet beats (1 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 1).
• Bar 3 contains a minim and a crotchet, totalling 3 crotchet beats (2 + 1).

Since each bar consistently holds 3 crotchet beats, the time signature is 3/4. This means there are three beats per bar, with each beat being a crotchet (quarter note). The key signature shows one flat (B♭), placing the tune in F major, but the time signature is determined solely by the rhythmic grouping within each bar.

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"We are H.A.P.P.Y" is a well-known Nigerian marching song. It is a rhythmic, spirited piece typically performed during parades, school march-pasts, and organised group movements. The song's steady, regular beat and march-like tempo make it suitable for synchronised walking or marching.

A marching song has a strong, regular pulse (usually in duple or quadruple time) that allows a group to move in step together. "We are H.A.P.P.Y" fits this description with its energetic, repetitive structure designed to keep participants in rhythm as they march.

An art song is a formal vocal composition for solo voice and piano, usually setting a poem to music. A praise song is used primarily for worship or to honour someone. A work song accompanies manual labour and helps coordinate physical effort. The rhythmic and functional character of "We are H.A.P.P.Y" aligns it with the marching song category.

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Palestrina (Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, c. 1525-1594) is the composer most prominently associated with the Missa Brevis in music history. A Missa Brevis (Latin for "short mass") is a concise setting of the Ordinary of the Mass. Palestrina composed several such works as part of his vast output of sacred choral music.

Palestrina was the leading composer of the Roman School during the Renaissance period and is regarded as the master of Counter-Reformation sacred polyphony. His smooth, flowing vocal lines and careful treatment of dissonance set the standard for Catholic church music for centuries.

While other composers on the list also wrote sacred music, the Missa Brevis as an examination topic in this context points to Palestrina. Monteverdi is best known for bridging the Renaissance and Baroque with works like L'Orfeo. Handel is celebrated for oratorios such as Messiah. J.S. Bach, though he composed a Missa Brevis in some forms, is primarily associated with Lutheran church music such as cantatas and the Mass in B minor.

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Both the Ars Antiqua and the Ars Nova are musical styles that belong to the Medieval period of Western music history.

Ars Antiqua (Latin for "old art") refers to the style of polyphonic music that flourished in Europe from roughly 1170 to 1310. It is associated with the Notre Dame school of composers, including Leonin and Perotin, and features organum, conductus, and early motet forms.

Ars Nova ("new art") followed from about 1310 to 1377 and was named after Philippe de Vitry's treatise. It introduced greater rhythmic complexity and new time signatures, expanding the possibilities of musical notation. Guillaume de Machaut was its most prominent composer.

Both movements predate the Renaissance, the Baroque, the Classical, and the Romantic periods. The Medieval period in music is generally dated from around 500 to 1400 CE, and both Ars Antiqua and Ars Nova fall squarely within this timeframe.

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Kwaa Mensah (c. 1920-1991) was a pioneering Ghanaian palm-wine and highlife guitarist. He was the leader of the Fanti Trio, a small ensemble that played an important role in the development of guitar-band highlife music in Ghana.

Kwaa Mensah is recognised as one of the earliest and most influential palm-wine guitar musicians in West Africa. His fingerpicking style and the Fanti Trio's performances helped establish the guitar-band highlife tradition that would later influence many West African popular music genres.

The Accra Orchestra was a different ensemble associated with early brass-band highlife. The other options do not correspond to known musical groups led by Kwaa Mensah.

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The key signature in this score contains two sharps (F# and C#). Two sharps correspond to either D major or its relative minor, B minor.

To distinguish between the two, examine the melodic content and the final note. The melody centres around D, uses notes from the D major scale, and concludes on D. These are strong indicators that the tonal centre is D rather than B.

Since the key signature has two sharps and the melodic evidence points to D as the tonic, the melody is in the key of D major.

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The classical (standard) blues form consists of 12 bars (measures). This 12-bar structure is one of the most recognisable and widely used chord progressions in Western popular music. It is divided into three 4-bar phrases, typically following this harmonic pattern:

• Bars 1-4: Tonic chord (I)
• Bars 5-8: Subdominant chord (IV) for two bars, then back to tonic (I) for two bars
• Bars 9-12: Dominant chord (V) for one bar, subdominant (IV) for one bar, then tonic (I) for two bars (often with a turnaround)

This 12-bar blues progression has been the foundation of blues music since its earliest forms in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and has influenced jazz, rock and roll, R&B, and many other genres.

An 8-bar form exists in some blues variants but is not the classical standard. 16-bar and 32-bar forms are associated with other popular song structures (32 bars, for example, is typical of the AABA Tin Pan Alley song form), not the standard blues.

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A diatonic interval is an interval formed between two notes that both belong to the same diatonic (major or minor) scale. To identify the interval, two things must be determined: the number (how many letter names the interval spans, counting both endpoints) and the quality (major, minor, diminished, or augmented, based on the exact number of semitones).

The score shows two whole notes on a treble clef staff. The lower note sits on the first line of the staff with a flat accidental, making it E♭. The upper note sits in the third space of the staff, which is C.

To find the interval number, count the letter names from E up to C: E, F, G, A, B, C. That is six letter names, so the interval is a 6th.

To determine the quality, count the semitones from E♭ up to C:

E♭ → E → F → F♯ → G → G♯ → A → A♯ → B → C = 9 semitones

A 6th spanning 9 semitones is a major 6th. This can also be confirmed by building the major scale on the lower note: the E♭ major scale is E♭, F, G, A♭, B♭, C, D, E♭. The sixth degree of this scale is C, so E♭ to C is exactly the major 6th of that scale.

The other options can be ruled out as follows:

• A minor 6th contains 8 semitones. For example, E natural to C is a minor 6th, but the flat on E widens the interval by one semitone, making it major instead.
• A diminished 6th contains only 7 semitones, which is narrower still.
• An augmented 6th contains 10 semitones, one more than a major 6th.

When identifying interval quality, remember that flattening the lower note of an interval makes the interval wider (and therefore "larger" in quality), while flattening the upper note makes it narrower. Here, the flat on the lower note E expands what would otherwise be a minor 6th (E to C) into a major 6th (E♭ to C).

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Danny Young is a Nigerian Afropop and hip-hop artist who became widely known for his hit single Rock the Party. The song was a major commercial success in the Nigerian music scene and became a staple at social gatherings and parties.

D'banj is a Nigerian musician best known for hits such as Oliver Twist and his collaboration with Don Jazzy under Mo' Hits Records. Dijnee and Big Bamo are also Nigerian artists but are not associated with this particular track.

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The song "Adara" was composed by Sasha (also known as Sasha P, born Folarin Falana). Sasha P is a Nigerian hip-hop and pop artist who gained prominence in the Nigerian music scene in the 2000s. "Adara" was one of his notable tracks that showcased a blend of hip-hop with Nigerian musical elements.

The other artists are also Nigerian musicians but are known for different songs. Olu Maintain is best known for the hit "Yahooze." Weird MC (Adesola Idowu) was a female rapper known for "Ijoya" and other tracks. These artists represent different strands of Nigerian popular music but are not associated with the song "Adara."

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The Allemande is a Baroque dance that is characteristically written in 4/4 time (common time). It originated as a German dance (the name means "German" in French) and became a standard movement in the Baroque suite, typically appearing as the first dance after the prelude.

The Allemande is performed at a moderate tempo with a flowing, continuous style. It typically begins with an anacrusis (a short upbeat, usually a single semiquaver or quaver before the first full bar). Its texture is usually polyphonic, with interwoven melodic lines.

The other time signatures belong to different dances in the Baroque suite. A dance in 3/4 time would be a Minuet or a Sarabande. 3/2 time is associated with the Sarabande in some settings. 6/4 or 6/8 time signatures are associated with the Gigue (jig). Remembering the time signature associated with each standard Baroque dance is essential for examinations on this topic.

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Martellato (or martellé in French) is an Italian musical term that means hammered. The word derives from the Italian martello, meaning "hammer."

In string playing, martellato refers to a bowing technique where the bow is pressed firmly into the string and released with a sharp, accented stroke, producing a strong, percussive attack followed by a brief silence before the next note. Each note sounds distinctly separated with a "hammered" quality. It is one of the fundamental bowing techniques alongside legato, staccato, spiccato, and others.

In keyboard and percussion contexts, martellato indicates a forceful, hammered style of striking the keys or instrument.

The other options do not match. "Pinched" in music would be closer to pizzicato (plucked). "Blasted" and "punched" are not standard musical terms.

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The score shown uses the alto clef, also called the C clef on the third line. This clef is identified by its distinctive symbol at the beginning of the staff, which resembles two curved brackets pointing inward toward the middle line. The alto clef places middle C on the third (middle) line of the five-line staff, and every other note is read relative to that reference point.

Among standard orchestral and ensemble instruments, the viola is the instrument that reads music written in the alto clef as its primary clef. This is the single most reliable way to identify a viola part in a score: if the part is written in alto clef, it is almost certainly intended for the viola.

The other instruments offered as options each use different clefs:

• The violin reads from the treble clef (G clef), which places the note G on the second line.
• The cello reads primarily from the bass clef (F clef), switching to the tenor clef (C clef on the fourth line) for higher passages, but never the alto clef.
• The guitar reads from the treble clef, sounding one octave lower than written.

Whenever you see a score written in the alto clef, associate it immediately with the viola. This is a standard identification point in music theory examinations.

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Lucky Dube (1964-2007) was a South African musician who contributed greatly to the development and popularisation of reggae music in Africa and worldwide. He is widely regarded as one of the most successful reggae artists ever to come from the African continent. His albums, including Prisoner, House of Exile, and Taxman, brought reggae to audiences across Africa, Europe, and beyond.

Lucky Dube's music drew on the roots reggae tradition pioneered by Bob Marley, adapting it with African themes and sensibilities. He sang in Zulu, English, and Afrikaans, and used his music to address social issues such as apartheid, poverty, and injustice.

The other musicians listed are associated with different African genres. Kofi Olomide and Awilo Longomba are Congolese artists known for soukous and Congolese rumba. Manu Dibango was a Cameroonian saxophonist and vibraphonist famous for Afro-jazz and makossa, particularly his hit "Soul Makossa."

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Can We Chill? is a song by Ne-Yo, the American R&B singer, songwriter, and record producer whose real name is Shaffer Chimere Smith. Ne-Yo is widely recognised for his smooth vocal style and prolific songwriting, having penned hits for himself and other major artists. His well-known tracks include So Sick, Closer, and Miss Independent.

50 Cent (Curtis Jackson) is a rapper and entrepreneur primarily associated with hip-hop, not the R&B style of Can We Chill?. Dr Dre (Andre Young) is a hip-hop producer and rapper known for his work with N.W.A and for discovering artists like Eminem and 50 Cent. Usher is an R&B artist with his own catalogue of hits such as Yeah! and Confessions, but Can We Chill? belongs to Ne-Yo's discography.

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Fela Sowande (1905-1987) is widely regarded as the father of Nigerian art music. He was the first Nigerian composer to successfully blend indigenous Yoruba folk melodies with Western orchestral and compositional techniques. His Folk Symphony is a nationalistic orchestral work that draws on Nigerian folk themes and incorporates them into a symphonic framework, making it a landmark in African classical music.

Sowande's other notable works include the African Suite for string orchestra, which similarly fuses Yoruba melodies with Western forms. His compositions were among the first to demonstrate that African musical idioms could be expressed within the conventions of Western symphonic writing.

Ayo Bankole was also a prominent Nigerian art-music composer but is better known for choral and organ works. Akin Euba is known for his concept of "creative ethnomusicology" and works blending Yoruba drumming with Western techniques, but the specific title Folk Symphony is associated with Sowande. Bode Omojola is primarily known as a musicologist and scholar of Nigerian art music rather than as the composer of this particular work.

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The passage is written in C major (no sharps or flats in the key signature). Transposing 3½ tones up means moving every note up by 7 semitones, which is equivalent to a perfect fifth.

Starting from C and counting up 7 semitones: C → C♯ → D → D♯ → E → F → F♯ → G. The new tonic is G, so the passage will be in the key of G major (one sharp, F♯).

A useful shortcut: transposing up by a perfect fifth from any major key adds one sharp (or removes one flat) to the key signature. C major (no sharps) becomes G major (one sharp).

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The key signature has one flat (B_b), indicating F major or D minor. The three notes of the triad from bottom to top are D, F, and B_b.

Rearranging these notes in root position gives B_b-D-F, which is a B_b major triad. In root position the notes would be stacked B_b-D-F, with B_b as the lowest note.

Since D (the third of the chord) is in the bass instead of the root, the triad is in its first inversion. First inversion places the third of the chord as the lowest sounding note, producing the intervallic arrangement of a third and a sixth above the bass.

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The figure shows two notes joined by a tie: a crotchet (quarter note) on the left and a dotted quaver (dotted eighth note) on the right. A tie combines the durations of both notes into a single sustained sound.

Converting each note to demisemiquavers (the smallest standard subdivision, equal to a thirty-second note):

• A crotchet = 8 demisemiquavers
• A quaver = 4 demisemiquavers
• The dot adds half the quaver's value = 2 demisemiquavers
• A dotted quaver = 4 + 2 = 6 demisemiquavers

The total duration of the tied figure is therefore 8 + 6 = 14 demisemiquavers.

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Pizzicato is an Italian musical term that means plucked. It is a playing technique used on bowed string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass, where the performer plucks the strings with the fingers instead of using the bow.

The word derives from the Italian verb pizzicare, meaning "to pinch" or "to pluck." In musical scores, the abbreviation pizz. tells the player to switch from bowing (arco) to plucking. When the composer wants the player to resume bowing, the instruction arco appears.

Pizzicato produces a short, percussive, rounded tone that contrasts with the sustained, smooth sound of the bow. It is widely used in orchestral, chamber, and solo string music for textural variety.

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Atonality is a compositional approach that avoids establishing a tonal centre or key. Instead of organising music around a home note (tonic) and the hierarchies of traditional harmony, atonal music treats all twelve chromatic pitches as equal, producing a sound that lacks the familiar pull of resolution.

Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) is the composer most closely identified with atonality. Beginning around 1908 with works such as the Three Piano Pieces, Op. 11 and Pierrot Lunaire (1912), Schoenberg abandoned traditional tonality. He later formalised his approach into the twelve-tone technique (serialism), in which all twelve notes of the chromatic scale are arranged in a fixed row and no note is repeated until all twelve have been sounded.

Schubert and Smetana were Romantic-era composers who wrote firmly within the tonal system. Stravinsky experimented with many styles (primitivism, neoclassicism, and eventually serialism), but he is not primarily identified as the pioneer of atonality the way Schoenberg is.

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Griots (also called jeli or jali in Mandinka) are traditional West African musicians, storytellers, oral historians, and praise singers. In Senegambia (the region encompassing Senegal and The Gambia), griots belong to a hereditary caste of professional musicians who have preserved oral traditions for centuries.

Griots are best classified as wandering musicians because they traditionally travel from place to place, performing at naming ceremonies, weddings, funerals, and other social gatherings across different communities. Although griots have historically been attached to noble families and royal courts, their itinerant nature - moving between patrons, villages, and events to perform, narrate history, and sing praises - is their defining characteristic in the context of African music classification.

Cult musicians are those attached to specific religious or spiritual cults and rituals. Village musicians are non-professional performers who serve a single community. Palace musicians are permanently resident at a royal court. While griots may serve courts, their mobility and independence distinguish them from fixed palace ensembles.

Bayanin Amsa

The passage is written in G major (one sharp, F#) with a 2/4 time signature. Reading each bar in tonic sol-fa relative to G as doh:

Bar 1: Two crotchets (quarter notes) on D, which is the fifth degree of G major, giving s : s (soh, soh).

Bar 2: A dotted crotchet on B (the third degree, mi) followed by a quaver on A (the second degree, re). The dot extends the mi by half its value, giving m : -. r.

Bar 3: A dotted quaver on G (doh) followed by a semiquaver on A (re), then a crotchet on F# below the tonic G. Since this F# is the leading note below doh, it is written as t₁ (ti in the lower octave). This gives d . r : t₁.

Bar 4: A minim (half note) on G (doh), filling the entire bar: d : -.

Combining all bars: 2/4 s : s | m : -. r | d . r : t₁ | d : - ||

Bayanin Amsa

In the key of D major, the scale consists of the notes: D, E, F#, G, A, B, C#. Each note in a major scale has a specific scale degree name:

1. D - Tonic (1st degree)
2. E - Supertonic (2nd degree)
3. F# - Mediant (3rd degree)
4. G - Subdominant (4th degree)
5. A - Dominant (5th degree)
6. B - Submediant (6th degree)
7. C# - Leading note (7th degree)

The note B is the 6th degree of the D major scale, which is called the submediant. The submediant gets its name because it is a third below the tonic (the "median" below), just as the mediant is a third above the tonic.

A common mistake is confusing the submediant with the subdominant. The subdominant is the 4th degree (G in D major), while the submediant is the 6th degree (B in D major). To avoid this error, write out the full scale and count the position of the note in question.

Bayanin Amsa

Vivace is an Italian tempo marking used in music that translates to fast and lively. It indicates that the music should be performed at a brisk, energetic pace, typically around 132-140 beats per minute, though the exact speed can vary depending on context and period.

Other common Italian tempo markings for comparison:

• Largo or Lento - slow
• Adagio - slow and stately
• Andante - at a walking pace
• Allegro - fast
• Presto - very fast

The word "sustained" in music is associated with the term sostenuto, not vivace. The options describing slow tempos correspond to terms like largo, adagio, or andante. Vivace specifically conveys both speed and liveliness, making it distinct from a merely fast tempo like allegro.