WAEC SSCE - Government - 2009 (Essay)

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(a) Meaning of a manifesto

A manifesto is a published statement of the aims, principles, programmes and policies of a political party, which it presents to the electorate during an election campaign. It is a document in which the party outlines what it intends to do for the people if voted into power, serving as a kind of promise or contract with the electorate and as a basis for judging the party's performance later.

(b) Five factors that determine the electoral success of a political party

1. Attractiveness of the party manifesto: A party with a realistic, appealing and people-oriented programme is likely to win the confidence of voters.
2. Quality of the candidates: The character, competence, popularity and integrity of the party's candidates influence how many votes the party attracts.
3. Financial strength of the party: Adequate funds enable a party to organise, campaign widely and mobilise supporters effectively.
4. Effective party organisation: A well-structured party with strong grass-roots organisation and discipline is better able to reach and mobilise voters.
5. Support of interest groups and the media: Backing from powerful interest groups and favourable media coverage boost a party's chances.
6. Past record and performance: A party's previous achievements in government (or credible promise where it is new) affects voters' trust and support.

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The United Nations Organisation (UNO), established in 1945 to maintain international peace and cooperation, suffers from several weaknesses. These include the following.

1. The veto power: Any one of the five permanent members of the Security Council (USA, Russia, China, Britain and France) can veto a decision, thereby frustrating the will of the majority and paralysing action.
2. Lack of a standing army: The UN has no permanent army of its own and depends on member states to contribute troops, which weakens its ability to enforce its decisions promptly.
3. Financial dependence: It relies on the contributions of member states, and the failure or reluctance of members to pay their dues leaves it perpetually short of funds.
4. Domination by powerful states: The organisation is often controlled and manipulated by the big and wealthy powers to serve their own interests, at the expense of weaker nations.
5. Lack of coercive/enforcement power over sovereign states: It cannot compel sovereign states to obey its resolutions, so many resolutions are simply ignored.
6. Inability to prevent all wars: Despite its aims, it has failed to prevent many wars and conflicts around the world, exposing the limits of its peace-keeping role.

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The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) was formed in 1934 (originally as the Lagos Youth Movement) and became one of the earliest nationalist organisations in Nigeria. Its objectives included the following.

1. Promotion of national unity: It sought to unite the various ethnic groups and peoples of Nigeria into one nation with a common sense of purpose, cutting across tribal lines.
2. Struggle for self-government: It aimed at achieving greater political participation and eventual self-government for Nigerians, opposing colonial domination.
3. Improvement of education: It campaigned for better and expanded educational opportunities for Nigerians, including protest against the inferior status of Yaba Higher College.
4. Advancement of the economic and social welfare of Nigerians: It fought against discrimination and for improved economic and social conditions and greater opportunities for indigenes in commerce and the civil service.
5. Creation of political awareness: It aimed to awaken political consciousness among Nigerians and mobilise them for the nationalist cause.

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The executive is the arm of government responsible for the implementation and enforcement of laws and policies. Its main functions in a modern state are as follows.

1. Execution and enforcement of laws: The executive puts into effect the laws made by the legislature and ensures that they are obeyed by the citizens.
2. Formulation and implementation of policies: It initiates, formulates and carries out government policies and programmes for the development and welfare of the state.
3. Maintenance of law and order: Through the police and other security agencies, the executive maintains internal peace, order and security of lives and property.
4. Defence of the country: As commander-in-chief, the executive controls the armed forces and defends the nation against external aggression.
5. Conduct of foreign relations: The executive manages the country's external affairs, appoints and receives ambassadors, negotiates and signs treaties and represents the state internationally.
6. Preparation of the budget and control of finance: The executive prepares the annual budget, collects revenue and manages public funds subject to legislative approval.
7. Making appointments: It appoints ministers, judges, ambassadors and other public officials, subject where necessary to legislative confirmation.
8. Prerogative of mercy: The executive can pardon, reprieve or commute the sentences of convicted persons.

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British colonial administration in West Africa, particularly the system of indirect rule, suffered from several weaknesses. These include the following.

1. Imposition of alien rule and neglect of traditional systems: Where suitable traditional rulers did not exist, as among the Igbo and other segmentary societies, the British created artificial chiefs (warrant chiefs) who were rejected by the people, causing resentment and revolts such as the Aba Women's Riot of 1929.
2. Undemocratic nature: The administration was authoritarian and did not allow the people meaningful participation in their own government; decisions were imposed from above.
3. Undermining of traditional authority: By making chiefs answerable to colonial officers rather than to their people, the system weakened and corrupted the authority and respect traditionally enjoyed by natural rulers.
4. Neglect of social and economic development: The administration concentrated on exploiting raw materials and collecting taxes while neglecting education, health, industry and infrastructure for the benefit of the people.
5. Divide and rule and lack of uniformity: The policy of divide and rule sowed disunity, and the system was applied inconsistently across different regions, deepening divisions.

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(a) Meaning of legitimacy in government

Legitimacy is the quality of being lawful, rightful and generally accepted. In government it refers to the extent to which the citizens accept and recognise the government and its authority as rightful and binding, and are willing to obey its laws and directives voluntarily. A legitimate government is one that has acquired power through accepted and lawful means and therefore commands the loyalty and support of the people.

(b) Five ways of acquiring legitimacy

1. Through free and fair elections: A government that wins power in a genuine, popular election is regarded as legitimate because it reflects the will of the people.
2. Through inheritance or tradition: In monarchies, authority is acquired by hereditary succession, and long-standing tradition confers legitimacy.
3. Through a valid constitution: A government that comes to power and rules in accordance with the provisions of an accepted constitution enjoys legitimacy.
4. Through referendum or plebiscite: When the people approve a leader, policy or arrangement by direct popular vote, legitimacy is conferred.
5. Through charismatic leadership and popular support: A leader with exceptional personal qualities who wins the confidence and voluntary obedience of the people acquires legitimacy.
6. Through legality and the rule of law: Operating strictly within the law and respecting due process earns a government acceptance and legitimacy.

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An unwritten constitution is one whose principles and rules are not codified into a single document but are found scattered in conventions, customs, judicial decisions, statutes and historical documents, as in Britain. Its main disadvantages are as follows.

1. Uncertainty and vagueness: Because the rules are not gathered in one document, it is often difficult to know exactly what the constitution says, leading to confusion and disputes.
2. Easy to manipulate: Since much of it rests on unwritten conventions, an unscrupulous ruler can easily bend, ignore or manipulate the rules to serve selfish ends, which may pave the way for dictatorship.
3. Difficulty of reference: The absence of a single authoritative document makes it hard for citizens, lawyers and courts to consult and cite the constitution.
4. Not suitable for a heterogeneous or federal state: It cannot clearly define and share powers between levels of government, so it is unsuitable for federations or societies with diverse ethnic groups such as Nigeria.
5. Lack of protection for fundamental rights: The rights of citizens are not clearly and firmly entrenched, making them vulnerable to erosion by government.
6. Difficult for new or developing states to adopt: It depends on long-established traditions and mature political conventions which young nations do not yet possess.

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(a) Concurrent functions in a federation

Concurrent functions are the powers and responsibilities listed on the concurrent legislative list, over which both the central (federal) government and the component (state or regional) governments are empowered to legislate and act. Both levels of government share responsibility in these areas, but where a state law conflicts with a federal law on the same matter, the federal law prevails and the state law becomes void to the extent of the inconsistency (the doctrine of covering the field). Common examples include education, health, agriculture, roads and industrial development.

(b) Five features of a confederal system of government

1. Weak central government: The central authority is deliberately weak and derives its powers from the component states, which remain sovereign.
2. Component units retain sovereignty: Each member state keeps its independence and can withdraw from the union at will (right of secession).
3. Right of nullification: A member state can reject or refuse to implement a decision or law of the central body that it considers against its interest.
4. Central government has no direct power over citizens: It relates to the citizens only through the component states, not directly.
5. Loose association: The union is a loose alliance held together mainly for limited common purposes such as defence and foreign affairs.
6. Financial dependence of the centre: The central government depends on contributions from the member states for its revenue rather than taxing citizens directly.

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The first military intervention in Nigerian politics took place on 15 January 1966, when a group of army officers overthrew the First Republic. The causes included the following.

1. Widespread political corruption: Politicians were seen as corrupt and self-serving, enriching themselves at public expense, which discredited the civilian government.
2. Rigging and electoral malpractices: The disputed 1964 federal election and the 1965 Western Region election, marked by massive rigging, thuggery and violence, eroded confidence in the democratic process.
3. Political instability and lawlessness: Breakdown of law and order, especially the violence and killings in the Western Region (the "wild-wild West"), created chaos that the government could not control.
4. Ethnic and regional rivalry: Bitter competition and mistrust among the major ethnic groups and regions weakened national unity and made stable government impossible.
5. Census controversy: The disputed 1962 and 1963 population census, seen as manipulated for political advantage, deepened regional suspicion and conflict.
6. Weak and ineffective leadership: The civilian leaders were seen as unable to solve the nation's problems or curb the excesses of politicians, creating a vacuum the military claimed to fill.
7. Nepotism and tribalism: Favouritism in appointments and the sharing of national resources along ethnic lines caused resentment.

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The European colonisation of West Africa in the nineteenth century was driven by several motives, mainly economic, political and strategic. The main reasons include the following.

1. Economic (search for raw materials and markets): The Industrial Revolution created a demand for raw materials such as palm oil, cocoa, groundnut, cotton and rubber, and for markets to sell European manufactured goods. Colonies guaranteed both.
2. Search for areas for investment: European capitalists wanted new regions where surplus capital could be invested profitably in mines, plantations and trade.
3. National prestige and rivalry: European nations such as Britain, France and Germany competed for colonies as a mark of national greatness and power, leading to the scramble for and partition of Africa.
4. Strategic and political considerations: Some territories were seized to protect trade routes, secure existing colonies and gain military or naval advantage over rival powers.
5. Desire to spread Christianity and Western civilisation: The wish to abolish the slave trade, spread the Christian religion and impose European culture and civilisation also encouraged colonisation.

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Under the 1963 Republican Constitution of Nigeria, the President was a ceremonial Head of State (the real executive powers being exercised by the Prime Minister and cabinet). The President's functions were mainly formal and included the following.

1. Head of State: He was the ceremonial head of state and the symbol of national unity, representing the country at home and abroad.
2. Appointment of the Prime Minister: He appointed as Prime Minister the leader of the political party that commanded a majority in the House of Representatives.
3. Formal appointment of ministers and public officers: On the advice of the Prime Minister, he appointed ministers, judges and other principal officers of state.
4. Summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament: He performed the formal acts of opening, adjourning and dissolving the Parliament, usually on the advice of the Prime Minister.
5. Assent to bills: He gave formal assent to bills passed by Parliament before they became law.
6. Commander-in-Chief (ceremonial): He was the titular commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
7. Prerogative of mercy: He could grant pardon, reprieve or commutation of sentence to convicted persons, on advice.
8. Receiving and appointing envoys: He received foreign ambassadors and formally appointed Nigeria's diplomatic representatives.

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The Oyomesi was the council of state of the pre-colonial Oyo empire, made up of seven hereditary kingmakers headed by the Bashorun. It served as a powerful check on the Alaafin (the king). Its functions included the following.

1. Selection and installation of a new Alaafin: On the death of an Alaafin, the Oyomesi chose a successor from the royal family and performed the rites of installation.
2. Check on the power of the Alaafin: It acted as a check on the Alaafin, preventing him from becoming a tyrant, and could compel an erring or unpopular Alaafin to commit suicide by presenting him with an empty calabash or parrot's eggs.
3. Advisory function: The Oyomesi advised the Alaafin on important matters of state and assisted him in the day-to-day administration of the empire.
4. Legislative function: It participated in making laws and formulating policies for the good governance of the empire.
5. Judicial function: It served as a high court, settling serious disputes and trying important cases within the empire.
6. Religious and ceremonial functions: The Oyomesi took part in the performance of important state religious rites and festivals.
7. Declaration of war and peace: Together with the Alaafin, it deliberated on and decided matters of war and peace.