WAEC SSCE - Government - 2008

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The headquarters of the French Colonial government in West Africa was Dakar. Dakar is the capital city of Senegal, located on the west coast of Africa. It was the administrative center of French West Africa, which included several French colonies in the region. The French colonial government in West Africa was based in Dakar from 1902 until 1960 when most of the French colonies gained independence.

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The highest court of appeal under the Independence Constitutions of the West African States was the Judicial Committee of Privy Council. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was a British institution that functioned as the final court of appeal for the British colonies and territories. It heard appeals from the courts of the colonies and territories, including those in West Africa, that were part of the British Empire at the time. The Judicial Committee of Privy Council was abolished as a court of appeal for most British colonies and territories, including those in West Africa, in the 1960s and 1970s as these countries gained their independence.

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The main obligation of a citizen is allegiance to the state. This means that citizens have a responsibility to be loyal and devoted to their country and its laws, customs, and traditions. This includes obeying the laws, paying taxes, and participating in the democratic process. By fulfilling this obligation, citizens help to ensure the stability and prosperity of their country, and promote the common good of all its members. While other obligations such as registering for elections, serving in the army, and having the right to life are important, they are not the main obligation of a citizen.

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In a unitary state, sovereignty resides in the central government. This means that the central government has the ultimate power to make and enforce laws within the state without any interference from any other level of government. The central government has control over all administrative divisions, such as provinces or states, and can create, merge or dissolve them at will. This type of government is characterized by a strong central authority that exercises control over the entire state.

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When two or more political parties come together to form a government, it is referred to as a "coalition government". In such a government, each party works together to create a ruling majority and share responsibility for decision-making and governance. Coalition governments are often formed in parliamentary systems where no single party has enough seats to form a government on its own. This type of government allows for a broader range of ideas and perspectives to be represented, but can also face challenges in terms of balancing the interests and agendas of the different parties involved.

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Burkina Faso is a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). ECOWAS is a regional economic union comprising of fifteen West African countries, including Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Therefore, out of the given options, Burkina Faso is the only country that is a member of ECOWAS.

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The policy of Association was introduced in the French Colonies by Charles De Gaulle. Association was a policy aimed at granting self-rule to the colonies and giving them the option of either joining France or becoming independent states. It was introduced by De Gaulle in 1958, after he became president of France, as a way of responding to growing nationalist movements and demands for independence in the French colonies. The policy was intended to provide a framework for peaceful decolonization while maintaining French influence and interests in the colonies.

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Parliamentary control is the mechanism used to check the abuse of power by extra-legislative bodies set up by the legislature. It refers to the process by which the legislative branch of government oversees the actions of the executive branch and other independent bodies. Parliamentary control can take many forms, such as committee hearings, debates, and votes of no confidence. The purpose of parliamentary control is to ensure that these bodies act in accordance with the law and the best interests of the people they serve. This mechanism is different from recall, general election, and impeachment, which are other ways of checking abuse of power in different contexts.

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The leader of the opposition in a parliament belongs to the minority party in parliament. In a parliamentary system, the party with the largest number of seats forms the government, and the party with the second-largest number of seats becomes the opposition. The leader of the opposition is the leader of the party with the second-largest number of seats in parliament, and is responsible for holding the government accountable and providing an alternative vision for the country's direction.

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The primary purpose of political participation is to seek or hold political office. Political participation refers to any activity or action that citizens take to influence or support government and politics. This may include voting, joining a political party, running for office, attending political rallies or events, contacting elected officials, or engaging in protests or other forms of activism. Ultimately, the goal of political participation is to influence the political process and shape government policies, often with the aim of advancing one's own interests or values. Holding political office is one of the most direct and powerful ways to influence political decision-making, which is why seeking or holding political office is a key motivation for political participation.

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One advantage a country can derive from international relations is peaceful settlement of conflicts with other nations. International relations refer to the political, economic, and social connections that a country has with other countries in the world. Countries engage in international relations to promote mutual interests, maintain peace and security, and foster economic development. Peaceful settlement of conflicts is essential in ensuring global stability and economic growth. By having a good relationship with other countries, a country can resolve any disagreements or disputes without resorting to violence or war. Peaceful settlement of conflicts also creates a favorable environment for trade, investment, and tourism, which can lead to economic growth and development. Therefore, peaceful settlement of conflicts is an advantage that a country can derive from international relations.

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The organ of the United Nations Organization (UNO) responsible for appointing staff of the organization is the Secretariat. The Secretariat is the administrative arm of the UN and is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the organization. It is headed by the Secretary-General who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The Secretariat is responsible for appointing staff of the organization, including the Secretary-General's senior advisers and departmental heads, as well as administrative and technical staff. It is also responsible for implementing the decisions and policies of the other organs of the UN, such as the General Assembly and the Security Council.

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When a government has the ability to make and enforce laws that its citizens are obligated to follow, it is said to be exercising authority. Authority is the legitimate use of power, where power is the ability to compel or influence obedience. This means that a government with authority has the right to make decisions, enforce laws, and punish those who break them. However, the government's authority is based on the consent of the governed, and if citizens believe that the government is no longer acting in their best interest, they may withdraw their consent, leading to a loss of authority.

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Nazism is a political ideology that emphasizes the supremacy of a particular race. Specifically, Nazism asserts the superiority of the Aryan race, which was believed by its adherents to be a master race that was destined to rule over all other races. This ideology also involved extreme nationalism and authoritarianism, and was characterized by anti-Semitic and anti-communist beliefs. The Nazi party, led by Adolf Hitler, rose to power in Germany in the 1930s, and their reign resulted in the Holocaust and other atrocities during World War II.

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A state performs the following functions except "encouraging the struggle for power". Explanation: A state is a political entity that is responsible for the welfare and protection of its citizens. The state performs various functions that are essential for the well-being of the citizens, such as promoting their welfare, providing social services, and encouraging trade with other states. However, encouraging the struggle for power is not one of the functions of the state. In fact, the state is responsible for maintaining law and order and ensuring that power is not abused or misused. The state also provides a framework within which different groups can compete for power in a peaceful and orderly manner, such as through free and fair elections.

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Anonymity in the civil service means that an officer should not take praise or blame for his/her performance. It is a principle that enables civil servants to carry out their duties without fear of retribution or favoritism, and to serve the government of the day impartially. Civil servants are expected to remain neutral and committed to their duties, regardless of changes in government, and anonymity is a key factor in ensuring their independence and objectivity. By remaining anonymous, civil servants are able to focus on the tasks at hand and work towards the best interests of the government and the people it serves, without being swayed by external pressures or interests.

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The immunity of some citizens negates the principle of the rule of law. The rule of law states that everyone is equal before the law, and no one is above it. However, when some citizens are granted immunity from prosecution, they are essentially above the law, and this undermines the principle of the rule of law. This is because the rule of law requires that everyone be subject to the same laws and penalties, regardless of their status or position in society. Therefore, the principle of immunity for some citizens is incompatible with the rule of law.

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A group that presents candidates for elections is a political party. Political parties are organizations that seek to influence or control government policies and actions by nominating candidates for election to public office. These candidates are usually members of the party and they run for various positions such as president, governor, senator, or member of parliament. Political parties have a set of principles, policies, and ideologies that guide their activities and positions on issues affecting the society. They use various methods such as rallies, campaigns, and advertisements to mobilize the public and win support for their candidates.

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One party system is a feature of communist states. In a one-party system, there is only one political party allowed to exist, and it controls all aspects of government and society. The ruling party in a one-party system is usually communist or socialist, and it maintains its power through force and propaganda. Elections are held, but they are often rigged, and only members of the ruling party can run for office. In a one-party system, there is no real political opposition, and dissent is often met with repression.

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Military governments usually rule by decrees. Decrees are official orders or decisions issued by a government or other authority, such as a military government. Decrees are often used by military governments to bypass traditional legislative processes and impose their will on the population. They can be used to implement policies, restrict civil liberties, and punish dissenters. Unlike laws, which are made through established legal processes, decrees are issued by those in power without public debate or input, making them more authoritarian in nature.

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A constitution whose provisions are printed and contained in one document is a written constitution. A written constitution is a type of constitution where all the laws and principles that govern a state are codified in a single document. This document specifies the rights of citizens, the powers of the government, and the rules for governing the state. A written constitution is usually more rigid than an unwritten constitution, which may be made up of various sources such as statutes, case laws, conventions, and customs.

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The Judiciary protects the liberties of individuals in the state. The Judiciary is the branch of government that is responsible for interpreting and enforcing the law. Its main role is to uphold the rule of law and protect the rights and freedoms of individuals. The Judiciary is independent of the other branches of government, such as the Executive and Legislature, and is tasked with ensuring that their actions comply with the law and do not infringe upon the rights of citizens. The Judiciary is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and ensuring that laws are consistent with its provisions, as well as protecting individuals from violations of their rights by government officials and institutions.

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Political Parties facilitate the working of a democratic government. Political parties are groups of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. Political parties offer various political alternatives to the citizens, who can then choose the party that best represents their interests. They also provide a platform for individuals to voice their concerns and to participate in the political process. In a democracy, political parties play a critical role in ensuring that the government is accountable to the people, and they facilitate the peaceful transfer of power from one party to another. Therefore, political parties are essential for the functioning of a democratic government.

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The answer is "state." In a state, membership is compulsory for all individuals living within its territory. It is not possible to opt out of membership in a state, as this would require leaving its territory entirely. A state has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within its territory, and its laws apply to all individuals within its borders. In contrast, membership in a community, society, or club is voluntary and individuals can choose whether or not to participate.

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A state with more than one dominant political party of nearly equal strength is operating a multi-party system. In a multi-party system, political power is divided between several political parties, each competing for control of the government. This system provides voters with more choices and allows for a broader range of political views and ideas to be represented. In contrast, a one-party system only allows for one political party to exist and control the government, limiting political diversity and freedom of expression.

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Power can be defined as the ability to compel or influence obedience. In other words, power refers to the capacity to control or direct the behavior of others in a particular way. It involves having the authority, influence, or control to make decisions, enforce laws or regulations, or take actions that can affect others' lives or behavior. Power can be wielded by individuals, groups, or institutions, and it can be gained through various means, including force, persuasion, or social status. Ultimately, the possession of power allows individuals or groups to shape the world around them according to their own interests and agendas.

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A person who exercises franchise performs a civic duty. Franchise refers to the right to vote in an election to select representatives or to participate in a referendum. It is a fundamental aspect of democracy as it allows citizens to participate in the decision-making process of their country or community. By exercising their franchise, citizens have a say in who represents them and the policies that affect them. Therefore, it is considered a civic duty because it is a responsibility that citizens have to participate in the democratic process and ensure their voices are heard.

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The concept being described is sovereignty. Sovereignty refers to the supreme power of a state or government to govern itself and its citizens, and to make and enforce laws within its own territory. It is the idea that a government has the final say in all matters concerning its citizens and territory. The other options are not the correct answer because: - Rule of law refers to the principle that everyone, including the government, must follow the law and that no one is above it. - Parliamentary supremacy refers to the principle that the parliament has the final say in making laws and that no other branch of government can overrule or overturn its decisions. - Separation of powers refers to the idea that the powers of government should be divided among different branches or institutions, such as the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

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The main purpose of setting up public corporations is to provide essential services to the people at minimal cost. Public corporations are established by the government to provide services that are necessary for the welfare of the citizens, such as transportation, healthcare, energy, water, and education. Unlike private corporations that aim to make a profit, public corporations prioritize the provision of quality services at an affordable cost. The government owns and operates these corporations, and their primary objective is to benefit the general public. By providing essential services at minimal cost, public corporations help to improve the living standards of citizens and enhance economic development.

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The pre-independence political parties in British West Africa were largely concerned about the political emancipation of Africans. These parties were formed by African elites who were dissatisfied with the way the colonial government was treating their people. They sought to challenge the colonial administration and agitated for the participation of Africans in the governance of their countries. The parties championed the cause of independence and self-rule for their countries and advocated for the creation of institutions that would promote democracy and development. They also campaigned for the protection of the rights of their people and fought against discrimination and exploitation by the colonial government and other interest groups.

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The organ of the United Nations Organization (UNO) responsible for the affairs of the mandated territories was the Trusteeship Council. The Trusteeship Council was established under the authority of the UN Charter to ensure that territories that were not self-governing at the time were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and to promote their development towards self-government or independence. The Trusteeship Council was responsible for supervising the administration of Trust Territories, which were territories that were placed under the trusteeship system by the UN. It was also responsible for promoting the economic, social, educational, and cultural development of the people in the territories. The Trusteeship Council suspended its operations in 1994 after all the trust territories had achieved self-government or independence.

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A constitutional amendment that is cumbersome is usually described as "rigid". This is because a rigid constitution is difficult to amend, and the process is often cumbersome, requiring a high level of consensus and agreement among different branches of government or political parties. In a rigid constitution, the amendment process is deliberately made difficult to ensure that any changes to the constitution are well-considered and not made impulsively. This is in contrast to a flexible constitution, where the amendment process is relatively easy and can be done through a simple majority vote.

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In a parliamentary system of government, the head of government is the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party or coalition of parties with the majority in the parliament. The Prime Minister is responsible for leading the government and making policy decisions. The position of President or Governor is usually ceremonial and does not hold the same executive power as the Prime Minister in a parliamentary system. The Chancellor is the head of government in some countries with a parliamentary system, such as Germany.

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Government as an academic field of study refers to the study of political institutions and processes. This field of study aims to understand how governments work, how policies are made, and how power is distributed and exercised within society. It encompasses a broad range of topics including political theory, comparative politics, public administration, international relations, and more. Through this field of study, students gain an understanding of the inner workings of government and politics, and are better equipped to analyze and engage with the complex issues and challenges facing society today.

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The function of political parties are to present candidates for elections, unite diverse views of different interest groups, and form government after elections. Therefore, "Bringing the country's economic and social conditions under control" is not a function of political parties. Political parties are not responsible for managing the economy or social conditions of the country. Instead, they focus on the political aspect of governance, such as proposing policies and electing officials to carry out those policies.

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When a pressure group is made up of people of the same profession, it is called an "occupational group". This means that the individuals in the group share a common profession or occupation and seek to promote and protect their common interests, needs, and goals through collective action. Examples of occupational groups include trade unions, professional associations, and guilds. These groups often engage in lobbying activities to influence government policies and regulations that affect their profession.

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Public opinion is not a delegated legislation. Delegated legislation is a type of law made by authorities other than the legislature, such as the executive branch or local governments. It derives its authority from a statute passed by the legislature that allows the delegate to make law within the scope of that authority. Statutory instruments, bye laws, and orders-in-council are all examples of delegated legislation. Public opinion, on the other hand, refers to the views and beliefs held by the general public on a particular issue and is not a form of law-making.

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The system of government where the head of state exercises both executive and ceremonial powers is known as a presidential system. In this system, the head of state is usually elected by the people and is separate from the head of government, who holds the actual executive power. The head of state acts as a symbol of the nation, represents the country in international affairs, and performs ceremonial duties. Examples of countries with presidential systems include the United States, France, and Nigeria.

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Local governments are important in a state for the following reasons:

1. Bringing government closer to the people: Local government takes governance to the grassroots, enabling ordinary people to relate directly with the authority that administers their affairs.
2. Provision of essential services: It provides basic amenities such as rural roads, markets, primary health care, refuse disposal, water and primary education to the local community.
3. Political education and participation: It offers citizens the opportunity to take part in the running of their own affairs, serving as a training ground for political awareness and leadership.
4. Grassroots development: Being closest to the people, it identifies and attends to local needs and mobilises local resources for the development of the area.
5. Reduction of the workload of central government: By handling purely local matters, it relieves the state and federal governments of routine responsibilities so that they can concentrate on wider issues.
6. Promotion of national unity and stability: By allowing diverse communities to manage their own affairs, it accommodates local interests and helps hold the nation together.
7. Quick response to local problems: Because it is on the spot, it can respond more rapidly to emergencies and the peculiar problems of the locality than a distant central government.

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(a) The principle of the Rule of Law

The rule of law, associated with A. V. Dicey, is the principle that the law is supreme and that everybody, whether governor or governed, rich or poor, is subject to the same law and the ordinary courts of the land. It rests on three main ideas: the supremacy of the law over arbitrary power, equality of all persons before the law, and the protection of individual rights and liberties by an independent judiciary. Under it, no person may be punished except for a definite breach of the law established in the ordinary courts.

(b) How the rule of law can be ensured in a state

1. Independence of the judiciary: Judges must be free from the control of the executive and legislature so that they can dispense justice impartially.
2. Fundamental human rights entrenched in the constitution: Citizens' rights should be guaranteed and made enforceable in the courts.
3. Fair hearing and due process: Every accused person must be given a fair and public trial, presumed innocent until proven guilty, and allowed legal representation.
4. Equality before the law: The law must apply equally to all citizens without discrimination on grounds of status, wealth, religion or office.
5. Separation of powers: Dividing governmental powers among the executive, legislature and judiciary prevents the concentration and abuse of power.
6. A free press and enlightened public opinion: A vigilant press and informed citizenry expose abuses of power and hold government accountable.
7. Absence of arbitrary arrest and detention: No one should be detained without being charged before a court within a reasonable time.

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None

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Military regimes are often reluctant to hand over power to civilian administrations for the following reasons:

1. Love of power and its privileges: Once in office, military rulers enjoy the enormous power, prestige and material benefits of office and are unwilling to give them up.
2. Fear of prosecution: Having committed abuses, corruption or human rights violations, they fear being tried, punished or disgraced once they lose the protection of office.
3. Unfinished programmes: They frequently claim that their transition or reform programmes are incomplete and use this as a reason to prolong their stay.
4. Economic and personal interests: Military officers and their associates who have amassed wealth and business interests want to protect these gains, which a civilian government might threaten.
5. Distrust of politicians: They argue that the politicians are corrupt, divided and incapable of good governance, and that handing over would return the country to chaos.
6. Ambition to perpetuate themselves: Some rulers seek to transform themselves into civilian presidents or install loyal successors so as to retain influence.
7. Fear of instability and revenge: They dread the political reprisals and instability that could follow their departure from power.

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(a) Nationalist Movement

A nationalist movement is an organised, collective struggle by the indigenous people of a country to resist foreign or colonial rule and to secure political independence, self-government and control of their own affairs. In British West Africa it was expressed through political parties, the press, trade unions and pressure groups agitating against colonial domination.

(b) Five effects of nationalist activities in British West Africa

1. Attainment of independence: Sustained nationalist agitation compelled Britain to grant self-government and eventual independence to its West African colonies.
2. Constitutional reforms: Nationalist pressure produced successive constitutions that steadily increased African representation and participation in governance.
3. Growth of political parties: The movements gave birth to organised political parties that mobilised the masses and shaped politics after independence.
4. Awakening of political consciousness: Nationalism raised the political awareness of the people and encouraged a sense of unity and shared identity.
5. Development of education and the press: Nationalists spread education and founded newspapers that enlightened the populace and served as tools of the struggle.
6. Emergence of indigenous leaders: The struggle produced a class of African leaders who assumed control of government upon independence.

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The rights of a citizen can be protected in the following ways:

1. Entrenchment in the constitution: Writing fundamental human rights into the constitution as justiciable provisions makes them supreme and difficult to tamper with.
2. An independent judiciary: Impartial courts free from executive interference can hear complaints of rights violations and grant redress.
3. Rule of law: Upholding the supremacy of the law and equality before it ensures that citizens are not subjected to arbitrary treatment.
4. A free press: A vigilant and independent press exposes abuses of rights and mobilises public opinion against oppression.
5. Separation of powers: Dividing government powers among the arms prevents concentration and abuse that could threaten citizens' rights.
6. Provision of the writ of habeas corpus: This legal remedy protects citizens against unlawful arrest and detention by compelling the state to justify or end the detention.
7. Activities of pressure groups and civil society: Human rights organisations, trade unions and other groups defend citizens and campaign against violations.
8. Independent electoral and anti-corruption bodies: Free elections and accountability institutions restrain government and safeguard citizens' political rights.

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(a) Definition of Communism

Communism is a political and economic ideology, associated with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which advocates a classless society in which the means of production, distribution and exchange are collectively owned by the community or state rather than by private individuals, and in which goods are distributed according to need. It aims at the abolition of private property and the eventual withering away of the state.

(b) Four features of Communism

1. Common ownership of the means of production: Land, factories, and other productive resources are owned collectively by the state on behalf of the people, not by private individuals.
2. Classless society: Communism seeks to abolish social classes so that there are no exploiters and exploited, and all citizens are treated as equals.
3. Central economic planning: The economy is planned and controlled by the state, which decides what to produce, how much, and how it is distributed, replacing the free market.
4. Distribution according to need: The guiding principle is "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need," so that wealth is shared to meet the needs of all citizens.
5. Abolition of private property: Private ownership of productive property is abolished, and the profit motive is discouraged in favour of collective welfare.

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(a) The Crown Colony system

A Crown Colony was a territory directly administered by the British Crown through officials appointed from London. In the West African setting, notably Lagos, the system placed authority in the hands of a Governor who was assisted by an Executive Council and a Legislative Council. The Governor was appointed by and responsible to the British monarch through the Colonial Office. Members of the councils were nominated rather than elected, and the Governor exercised wide powers including the power to make laws, appoint officials and veto decisions. Real authority therefore rested with British officials, with little or no genuine participation by the indigenous people.

(b) Four reasons why it was unpopular among the educated elite

1. Absence of elective representation: Members of the councils were nominated by the Governor rather than elected by the people, so the educated elite had no say in choosing their representatives.
2. Domination by British officials: Real power lay with the Governor and colonial officials, and Africans were excluded from meaningful positions of authority.
3. Denial of self-government: The system offered no path towards autonomy, frustrating the elite who desired greater participation and eventual independence.
4. Racial discrimination: The elite resented the discriminatory practices under which Africans were treated as inferior and denied equal opportunities with Europeans in the civil service.
5. Arbitrary powers of the Governor: The wide, unchecked powers of the Governor, including his veto, denied the people any effective control over legislation affecting them.

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The Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 introduced a full federal structure to Nigeria. Its merits and demerits are as follows:

(a) Three merits of the Lyttleton Constitution

1. It established a true federal system: It clearly divided powers between the central and regional governments, giving Nigeria a genuine federal structure for the first time.
2. It granted regional autonomy: The regions were given wide powers over their own affairs, and provision was made for regional self-government, which some regions later attained.
3. It made the regional legislatures wholly elective and created the office of Premier: Each region had its own Premier and Executive Council, strengthening responsible government at the regional level.

(b) Three demerits of the Constitution

1. It weakened the centre and encouraged regionalism: By granting the regions so much power, it fostered strong regional loyalties at the expense of national unity.
2. It abolished the office of a central Premier: There was no Prime Minister for the whole federation at first, leaving a weak centre without a clear national political leadership.
3. It deepened ethnic and regional rivalry: The emphasis on regional power intensified competition and suspicion among the major ethnic groups and their political parties.

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Several political factors weakened the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Four of them are outlined below:

1. The principle of non-interference in internal affairs: The charter forbade the OAU from intervening in the domestic affairs of member states, so it could not check tyranny, coups or human rights abuses within member countries.
2. Ideological differences among member states: Members were divided between radical and conservative blocs, and between those aligned to the East and West during the Cold War, making common action difficult.
3. Persistent inter-state and border disputes: Boundary conflicts and rivalries among member states, some inherited from colonialism, created disunity and undermined collective decisions.
4. Absence of a supranational authority and enforcement power: The OAU had no army or coercive machinery to enforce its resolutions, so its decisions were largely advisory and frequently ignored.
5. Personality clashes and the ambitions of leaders: Rivalry and mutual suspicion among African heads of state hampered co-operation and weakened unity.
6. External interference: The influence of former colonial powers and superpowers over individual member states divided the organisation and diluted its independence.

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(a) Definition of Public Opinion

Public opinion is the collective view, belief or attitude expressed by a significant number of people in a community on issues of common concern at a particular time. It is the aggregate of individual opinions on public matters which government and other authorities cannot afford to ignore.

(b) Three factors that can promote public opinion in a state

1. A free press and mass media: Newspapers, radio, television and social media inform citizens about public issues and provide the channels through which opinions are formed and expressed.
2. High level of literacy and education: An educated and enlightened population can understand issues, reason about them and articulate informed opinions, thereby strengthening public opinion.
3. Freedom of expression and association: Where citizens are free to speak, assemble and form associations without fear, opinions can be freely aired and organised into a powerful public voice.
4. Existence of pressure groups and political parties: These organisations educate, mobilise and channel the views of their members, helping to crystallise public opinion on issues.
5. A stable and democratic political system: Democracy encourages participation, debate and tolerance of divergent views, all of which nurture the growth of public opinion.

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Making Africa the centrepiece of Nigeria's foreign policy has had both advantages and disadvantages.

Three merits

1. Leadership and prestige: Championing African causes gave Nigeria the status of a leader and a big brother on the continent, enhancing its international image and influence.
2. Promotion of African liberation and unity: The policy enabled Nigeria to support decolonisation, the anti-apartheid struggle and the formation of bodies such as the OAU and ECOWAS, strengthening African solidarity.
3. Regional peace and security: Through peacekeeping and mediation, notably in Liberia and Sierra Leone under ECOMOG, Nigeria helped to restore stability in the sub-region, which serves its own security interests.

Three demerits

1. Heavy financial burden: The policy drained enormous resources through aid, grants and military intervention, often to the neglect of domestic needs.
2. Neglect of national interest: Critics argue that Nigeria spent so much on other African states that it received little tangible benefit in return, sometimes even ingratitude.
3. Overstretch and abuse: Constant intervention exposed Nigerian troops to danger and loss of lives, and the generosity was sometimes exploited by ungrateful beneficiaries.