WAEC SSCE - Government - 2020

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The correct answer is "chief of staff control" because it is not a recognized means of controlling public corporations. Legislative control involves the laws made by the legislative body, while judicial control refers to the legal oversight of the courts. Ministerial control is exercised by the relevant minister who oversees the activities of the public corporation. However, "chief of staff control" is not a recognized means of controlling public corporations.

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The national secretariat of a political party is managed by the national chairman and general secretary. The national chairman is the highest ranking official in the party and is responsible for overseeing the activities of the party at the national level. The general secretary, on the other hand, is responsible for the day-to-day running of the party, including organizing meetings, managing finances, and maintaining the party's records. Together, they form the top management team of the party and are responsible for ensuring that the party functions effectively and achieves its objectives.

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The reserved veto powers made the colonial government a "Virtual Dictator." The colonial governor had the power to veto any legislation passed by the Legislative Council, even if it had the support of the majority of members. This meant that the colonial governor could effectively control the entire legislative process and ensure that policies were implemented according to his wishes, without any real opposition or checks and balances. This system was used by many colonial powers to maintain control over their colonies and limit the power of local elected representatives.

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The redresses mentioned in the question are legal remedies that can be sought at a court of law to address grievances or injustices. Injunction, mandamus, and certiorari are all valid redresses that can be sought at a court of law to address various grievances. Injunction is a court order that prohibits someone from doing something or requires them to do something. Mandamus is a court order that compels someone to do something that they are legally obligated to do. Certiorari is a court order that requires a lower court to deliver its record in a particular case so that the higher court can review the case. Prorogation, on the other hand, is not a legal remedy available at a court of law for aggrieved people. Prorogation refers to the suspension of a legislative session, which is a political decision and not a legal remedy. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is prorogation.

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The mode of operation of pressure group that undermines economics, social and political stability of the state is "strikes". A strike is a work stoppage caused by employees' refusal to work. When pressure groups embark on strikes, it disrupts the economic, social and political stability of the state. Strikes can lead to loss of income for both the employees and employers, and also affect the economy of the state. It can also lead to violence, destruction of property and loss of lives, which may affect the social and political stability of the state. Lobbying involves seeking to influence decisions made by government officials, symposia involve holding conferences to discuss issues of concern and debates involve exchanging arguments or opinions. While these modes of operation can also influence government policies and decisions, they do not necessarily undermine the economics, social and political stability of the state as strikes can.

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Détails de la réponse

Public opinion refers to the views, attitudes, and beliefs held by the majority of citizens in a country about a particular policy or issue. It represents the collective opinion of the people, and is usually measured through polls, surveys, and other research methods. Public opinion is important in democratic societies, as it helps shape policy decisions made by government officials and other leaders.

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Détails de la réponse

An advantage of a two-party system is that it simplifies the electoral process. In a two-party system, voters have to choose between two major parties, which reduces the number of choices that they have to make. This simplification makes the electoral process easier for voters to understand, and reduces the likelihood of confusion or errors. Additionally, it can make it easier for parties to campaign, as they only have to focus on winning a majority of votes against one opponent rather than many.

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Violent socio-political unrest usually leads to the curtailment of the rights of citizens. This is because during such periods, the government may impose restrictions on citizens' rights and freedoms in an effort to maintain order and security. For instance, the government may impose curfews, ban public gatherings, censor the media, and detain citizens without trial. These measures are often seen as necessary to restore order but can lead to the infringement of citizens' rights. The other options listed in the question, such as transitional period, granting of presidential pardon, and period of constitutional pardon, do not necessarily lead to the curtailment of citizens' rights.

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Détails de la réponse

The police reform does not include public execution of law breakers. The primary function of police reform is to improve the effectiveness, accountability, and professionalism of law enforcement agencies. This involves a wide range of initiatives and changes, including improving training and education, increasing transparency and accountability, and strengthening community relations. One of the key objectives of police reform is to ensure that the police are able to protect life and property, enforce the law, and maintain order in a fair and impartial manner. This involves improving the police's ability to respond to and investigate crime, as well as their ability to prevent crime and ensure public safety. However, public execution of law breakers is not a function of police reform. This practice is illegal in most countries and goes against the principles of human rights and the rule of law. The police are responsible for investigating and prosecuting law breakers, but they do not have the power to carry out public executions. Police reform is focused on improving the ability of law enforcement agencies to serve and protect the public, while upholding the principles of human rights and the rule of law. The objective is to create a more effective, accountable, and professional police force that is better equipped to prevent and respond to crime.

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Monocephalous executive refers to a system of government where there is only one head of the executive branch. One advantage of this system is quick decision-making. This is because the head of the executive branch has the power to make decisions without having to consult or seek approval from other branches of government, leading to quicker implementation of policies and projects. On the other hand, in a system where power is shared among multiple individuals or groups, decision-making can be slower and more complicated due to the need for consensus-building and compromise.

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Egypt is a unitary country. In a unitary system, power is concentrated in the central government, and local authorities have only those powers delegated to them by the central government. In Egypt, the government exercises complete control over the administration of the country, and all provinces and localities are subject to the authority of the central government.

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The formation of the African Union is aimed at achieving a wider goal of continental government. The African Union was formed in 2002 to replace the Organization of African Unity (OAU) with the objective of promoting political and economic integration among African countries, and ultimately, to establish a continental government. The African Union seeks to strengthen the unity and solidarity among African nations, as well as to promote peace, security, and stability on the continent. By working together, African nations can better address common challenges such as poverty, disease, conflict, and underdevelopment.

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The institution established by the constitution to be responsible for recruiting personnel into the civil service is the Public Service Commission. The Public Service Commission is an independent constitutional body established to ensure that the recruitment, promotion, and discipline of civil servants are done in a fair, transparent and merit-based manner. The commission is responsible for advertising vacant positions in the civil service, receiving applications, shortlisting candidates, conducting interviews, and making recommendations to the appropriate government agency for appointment. The commission also ensures that civil servants are promoted based on their qualifications and experience, and that they are disciplined fairly and justly if they violate the rules and regulations of the civil service.

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Détails de la réponse

Under the Crown Colony system of administration, major policies were implemented in the colonies by the Colonial Governor. The Crown Colony system was a form of colonial administration used by the British Empire from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. Under this system, the British government directly controlled the administration of its colonies, usually through a governor who was appointed by the British monarch. The governor had wide-ranging powers and was responsible for implementing major policies in the colony, including economic, social, and political policies. The governor was supported by a team of officials, including a Colonial Secretary and other administrative staff. However, the governor was the ultimate decision-maker and had the power to veto any decision made by the colonial legislature or other colonial officials. Therefore, the correct answer is that under the Crown Colony system of administration, major policies were implemented in the colonies by the Colonial Governor.

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Détails de la réponse

The document which sets out the programme of a political party and guides the electorate to vote for it is the manifesto. A manifesto is a public declaration of a political party's principles, objectives, and policies. It outlines what the party intends to do if elected into office. The manifesto is an important document because it helps voters to make informed decisions about which party to vote for. It provides a clear indication of what a political party stands for and what it hopes to achieve if elected. The manifesto is often used as a basis for political debates and discussions during election campaigns.

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Pressure groups are organizations that seek to influence government policy or legislation without aiming to take control of the government. One of the features of pressure groups is that all members have similar interests. Members of a pressure group come together because they share a common goal or objective, and they work together to achieve that goal through various means, such as lobbying, protests, or public campaigns. While members may have different backgrounds and opinions, they share a common interest in the issue or cause that the pressure group represents.

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A non-partisan organization with the aim of influencing government policies is a pressure group. A pressure group is an organization that seeks to influence government policies and decisions, without being politically partisan. These groups bring together individuals and organizations with similar interests and goals, and they use various tactics, such as lobbying, advocacy, and public education, to influence government policies. Pressure groups can focus on a wide range of issues, from environmental protection to human rights, and they play an important role in democratic societies by giving a voice to groups and individuals who may not be well-represented in the political process. In contrast, political parties are partisan organizations that compete in elections and seek to win political power. Humanitarian and relief organizations, on the other hand, focus on providing aid and assistance to those in need, rather than influencing government policies.

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Détails de la réponse

Détails de la réponse

A military coup d'etat is an illegal seizure of power by a group of military personnel from the government in power. Therefore, it is usually followed by the suspension of the constitution, as the military group takes control of the government. The military coup usually involves the use of force, and sometimes violence, to overthrow the government in power. In some cases, the military group might break diplomatic relations with foreign countries, but this is not always the case. Therefore, the correct option is the suspension of the constitution.

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Détails de la réponse

Foreign policy is a set of guidelines and actions that a country's government takes towards other countries and international organizations to achieve its national interest. Therefore, a major advantage of a country's foreign policy is that it promotes the country's national interest. Foreign policy enables countries to pursue their goals, such as trade, diplomacy, defense, and security, in the international community. Through foreign policy, a country can promote its economic, political, and cultural interests abroad and establish strategic relationships with other countries.

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Détails de la réponse

The institution under the executive arm of government responsible for formulating and implementing government policies is the civil service. The civil service is made up of individuals who are employed by the government to assist in the administration of the country. The civil service provides advice to the government, and is responsible for the implementation of government policies and programs. It is responsible for the management of the day-to-day affairs of the government, and works to ensure that the government is run efficiently and effectively.

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The constitutional provision that gives a high degree of autonomy to component parts of a unitary state is devolution. Devolution is the transfer of powers from the central government to sub-national units, such as regions, states, or provinces. In a unitary state, where the central government holds most of the power, devolution provides a mechanism for sub-national units to have more control over certain policy areas and to make decisions that are closer to the people. Devolution is a way to accommodate the diverse needs and interests of different regions within a unitary state and to ensure that government is more responsive to local needs and circumstances. It provides a balance between the central government's ability to make decisions for the entire country and the ability of sub-national units to make decisions that are more relevant to their specific needs and interests. Devolution can be seen as a constitutional provision because it is a formal transfer of powers that is outlined in the constitution or a treaty. The degree of devolution can vary, with some unitary states having very limited devolution, while others have extensive devolution that gives sub-national units a high degree of autonomy.

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The flexibility and rigidity of a constitution refer to the "ease of amending the constitution". A constitution is a set of fundamental principles and rules that govern a country or organization. The flexibility and rigidity of a constitution refer to how easy or difficult it is to make changes to the constitution. A flexible or "unwritten" constitution is one that can be easily amended or changed without much difficulty. A rigid or "written" constitution is one that is difficult to change and requires a special process or procedure to make amendments. The flexibility or rigidity of a constitution depends on the source and nature of the constitution, as well as the process for making amendments to it.

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The type of election which allows party members to elect candidates for elective offices is called a "primary election". In a primary election, voters who are registered members of a political party can choose among several candidates from their party who are seeking nomination for an elective office. The candidate with the most votes becomes the party's nominee and goes on to run in the general election. Primary elections are typically held before general elections to determine which candidates will represent the political parties.

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The limitation to the principles of the rule of law is immunity. Immunity refers to the legal protection granted to certain individuals or groups, which exempts them from legal liability or punishment for their actions. In some cases, high-ranking government officials, diplomats, or members of the armed forces may be granted immunity. This immunity can sometimes be in conflict with the rule of law, as it can lead to unequal treatment under the law and the possibility of abuse of power without any legal consequences. Therefore, while the rule of law promotes equality, impartiality, and liberty, immunity can limit the application of these principles.

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The principle of separating the judiciary from the other organs of government and making it free from executive and legislative influence is called the separation of powers. The separation of powers is a fundamental principle of democratic governance, which divides the functions of government into three branches: the legislative branch, which makes the laws; the executive branch, which carries out the laws; and the judicial branch, which interprets the laws. The idea behind the separation of powers is to ensure that no single branch of government has too much power and that each branch can check and balance the power of the others. This helps to prevent the abuse of power and ensures that the government operates in a manner that is accountable, transparent, and responsive to the needs of the people. In this context, the judiciary is separated from the other organs of government and is made independent in order to ensure that it can make impartial and fair decisions without being influenced by the executive or legislative branches. This helps to ensure that the judiciary can serve as an impartial arbiter of justice and uphold the rule of law.

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The capital of the French Federation of West Africa states was located in Dakar, Senegal. The French Federation of West Africa (AOF) was a political entity established by France in the 1890s and dissolved in 1960. It included several West African countries, and its capital was Dakar, which was the political, economic, and cultural center of the region. Dakar was chosen as the capital of the AOF because of its strategic location on the Atlantic coast and its proximity to other French colonies in West Africa.

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Détails de la réponse

An opposition party that sees itself as "government-in-waiting" is called a shadow government. A shadow government is a group of opposition politicians who act as a "government-in-waiting," preparing themselves to take over the reins of government if and when they win an election. This group is often referred to as the "shadow cabinet" or "shadow ministers." The members of the shadow government are appointed by the opposition party leader and are responsible for scrutinizing and criticizing the policies and actions of the current government. They also develop alternative policies and proposals, which they believe would be more effective and efficient, and they are ready to implement them if they come to power. The shadow government serves as a mechanism for the opposition party to demonstrate its ability to govern and to provide a clear alternative to the current government. It also helps to ensure that the opposition party is prepared to take over the government if it wins an election, and it provides a level of accountability for the government.

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The observance of the rule of law in a state requires an independent judiciary. The rule of law is a principle that states that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable under the law. It means that the law is supreme and that everyone, regardless of their status or power, must abide by it. For the rule of law to be upheld, it is essential that there is an independent judiciary, which means that the judicial system is free from interference and influence by other branches of government or outside forces. An independent judiciary ensures that the law is applied fairly and impartially, and that individuals and institutions are held accountable for their actions. Having an independent judiciary is crucial for the protection of individual rights and freedoms, as well as for promoting stability, predictability, and fairness in a society. It is an important component of a functioning democracy and helps to ensure that the rule of law is respected and upheld.

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Détails de la réponse

The major functions of a government are to make and enforce laws and administer justice. Governments are established to exercise control and authority over a particular territory or people. They are responsible for ensuring that laws are made and enforced to promote peace, security, and social welfare. Governments also have the power to administer justice through the judicial system, which includes the courts and other legal institutions. This involves interpreting and enforcing the law, punishing those who violate it, and settling disputes between citizens. Therefore, the correct option is government.

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Campaigning for a candidate is not an electoral malpractice. Explanation: Campaigning for a candidate is a legitimate and essential part of the electoral process. It involves promoting a candidate's ideas, policies, and vision to voters in order to persuade them to vote for that candidate. Impersonation, threatening, and gerrymandering, on the other hand, are all examples of electoral malpractices. Impersonation involves someone pretending to be someone else in order to cast a vote, while threatening involves intimidating voters to influence their vote. Gerrymandering is the manipulation of electoral boundaries to create an unfair advantage for a particular political party or group. These actions are all considered to be illegal and undermine the integrity of the electoral process.

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A feature of a confederal state is that any unit can secede at will. A confederal state is a type of political organization in which the central government has limited powers and the constituent units, such as states or regions, have a high degree of autonomy and independence. In a confederal state, the central government is responsible for certain functions, such as foreign policy and defense, while the constituent units are responsible for other functions, such as taxation and administration. One of the key features of a confederal state is that any of the constituent units can secede from the central government at will. This means that the constituent units have the right to withdraw from the confederation if they so choose. This feature is in contrast to a federal state, in which the constituent units cannot secede and must remain part of the federal government. Confederal states are often used as a solution to complex political and cultural differences between constituent units. By giving the units a high degree of autonomy and independence, the central government can accommodate a wide range of interests and perspectives. However, the ability of any unit to secede at will can also lead to instability and conflict, as the constituent units may have different goals and priorities.

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Détails de la réponse

The age of the leader does not influence a country's foreign policy. Foreign policy refers to a government's strategy in dealing with other nations and international organizations. A country's foreign policy is shaped by various factors, including national interests, security concerns, economic considerations, and cultural and historical ties. The desire for foreign investments can influence a country's foreign policy, as it may seek to attract investment from other countries to boost its economy. International law, conventions, and treaties also play a significant role in shaping a country's foreign policy, as they provide guidelines and rules for interactions between nations. Religion and racial factors can also influence a country's foreign policy, as they may impact cultural ties and relationships with other nations. However, the age of the leader is not a relevant factor in shaping a country's foreign policy. While a leader's personal views, experiences, and values may play a role in their approach to foreign policy, their age alone does not have a direct impact on a country's foreign policy decisions. Therefore, the correct answer is that the age of the leader does not influence a country's foreign policy.

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A confederal state is characterized by the distribution of power between the central government and independent units (states, provinces, etc.). Unlike a federal state, in a confederal state, each unit has greater autonomy, and they can secede from the central government at will. Therefore, the correct option from the given choices is "any unit can secede at will."

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Political participation can take many forms, including belonging to a trade union or being a member of a pressure group. It can also involve canvassing for votes during an election or organizing festivals to celebrate a good harvest. Essentially, any activity that involves an individual or group of individuals engaging in the political process, expressing their opinions, and contributing to the decision-making process can be considered a form of political participation.

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Authority refers to the legal right or permission to exercise power, while power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of others. In simple terms, authority is the right to use power, whereas power is the actual use of that right. The major difference between power and authority is that authority is acquired through legitimate means such as appointment or election. It is a socially approved right to exercise power over others. Authority is based on consent and respect, whereas power is often based on coercion and force. Authority is exercised within a legal framework, and individuals who hold authority are expected to act within the limits of the law. In contrast, power can be exercised without legal or ethical boundaries, and the use of power can sometimes be harmful or even abusive. Therefore, the correct answer is that authority is acquired popularly through legitimate means, not exercised through force or coercion.

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Détails de la réponse

In modern democracy, a government is a contrast between the rulers and the ruled. Democracy is a form of government in which power is held by the people through free and fair elections. The people choose their representatives who then make decisions on their behalf. This means that the government is made up of elected officials who hold power temporarily, and are accountable to the people who voted for them. In this way, the government represents a contrast between the rulers (elected officials) and the ruled (the people who voted for them).

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Détails de la réponse

One reason for the failure of the assimilation policy in French West Africa was the refusal of the African to be culturally colonized. The assimilation policy was a policy implemented by the French colonial government in West Africa, which aimed to assimilate the African population into French culture and society. The policy was based on the idea that the African people were primitive and uncivilized, and that they could be elevated to the level of French citizens through exposure to French culture and education. However, this policy was met with resistance from the African population, who refused to be culturally colonized. They saw their own cultures and traditions as valuable and worth preserving, and they did not want to be forced to adopt French culture. This resistance was fueled by a growing sense of nationalism and a desire for independence, as well as a recognition of the cultural and political differences between the French and the African people. The refusal of the African to be culturally colonized was a major factor in the failure of the assimilation policy in French West Africa. The policy was seen as a threat to African identity and sovereignty, and it was ultimately rejected by the African people, who demanded the right to determine their own cultural and political future.

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Differences between the Crown Colony and the Protectorate

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a) Three political parties and their leaders who contested during the 1979 presidential elections in Nigeria are:

• National Party of Nigeria (NPN) - Shehu Shagari
• Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) - Obafemi Awolowo
• Nigerian People's Party (NPP) - Nnamdi Azikiwe

b) Features of political parties in Nigeria since independence:

1. Ethnic and regional affiliations: Political parties in Nigeria tend to be based on ethnic and regional affiliations, which can make it difficult for them to appeal to a broad national audience.
2. Ideological fluidity: Political parties in Nigeria have tended to lack clear and consistent ideologies, with many parties adopting platforms that are more focused on personality and patronage than on a specific political philosophy.
3. Factionalism and instability: Political parties in Nigeria have often been characterized by internal factionalism and instability, with frequent defections and party mergers and splits.
4. Weak institutional structures: Political parties in Nigeria have often had weak institutional structures, with limited capacity for mobilizing voters and fundraising.
5. Limited inclusivity: Political parties in Nigeria have often been criticized for being exclusive, with limited opportunities for women, youth, and minority groups to participate in party politics.
6. Dominance of the ruling party: Since independence, Nigeria has tended to have one dominant political party at any given time, with other parties struggling to gain a foothold in national politics.
7. Role of money and patronage: Political parties in Nigeria have often relied heavily on money and patronage to secure votes and maintain their power, rather than on building strong grassroots support.

Overall, the features of political parties in Nigeria since independence have been shaped by a range of factors, including ethnic and regional divisions, weak institutional structures, and a focus on patronage and personality over ideology. These factors have contributed to a political landscape that is often fragmented and unstable, with limited opportunities for meaningful political engagement and representation for all Nigerians.

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(a) Features of the Igbo political system

1. Absence of a central king: the system was decentralised (acephalous), with no paramount ruler over all the Igbo.
2. Village-based autonomy: each village or town governed itself through its own assembly and elders.
3. Rule by council of elders and titled men, supported by the age-grade system.

(b) Democratic tenets of the Igbo traditional political system

1. Popular participation: all adult males had the right to attend the village assembly and take part in decision-making.
2. Decision by consensus and majority feeling: matters were discussed openly until general agreement was reached, so no single person imposed his will.
3. Freedom of speech and expression: every member was free to speak and air his views at the assembly.
4. Rule of law and equality: laws applied to all, and public offices and titles were open to those who qualified through merit and hard work, not by heredity alone.

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Challenges faced by the United Nations Organization (UNO)

1. Abuse of the veto power: The five permanent members of the Security Council can each veto decisions, paralysing the organisation and protecting their own interests.
2. Inadequate finance: The UN depends on the contributions of member states, and the failure or refusal of many members to pay their dues promptly cripples its activities.
3. Lack of a standing army: The UN has no permanent armed force of its own and must rely on troops contributed by member states, which delays and weakens its ability to enforce peace.
4. Interference by powerful nations and disregard of its decisions: Big powers often ignore or defy UN resolutions, and pursue their own national interests, undermining its authority.
5. Persistent conflicts, terrorism and refugee crises: The rising number of wars, civil conflicts and humanitarian emergencies overstretch the organisation's resources.
6. Bureaucratic and administrative bottlenecks: The large, unwieldy structure of the organisation makes decision-making slow and sometimes inefficient.

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Features of federalism

Federalism is a system of government in which governmental powers are shared between a central (federal) government and component units (states or regions), each supreme within its own sphere.

1. Division of powers: Powers are constitutionally shared between the central government and the component units, usually through exclusive, concurrent and residual lists.
2. Written and rigid constitution: There is a supreme written constitution which clearly spells out the powers of each level of government and is not easily amended.
3. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution is the highest law of the land; both the federal and state governments derive their powers from it.
4. An independent judiciary/Supreme Court: A neutral court interprets the constitution and settles disputes between the levels of government.
5. Bicameral legislature: There is usually a two-chamber legislature to give representation both to the population and to the component units.
6. Duplication of governmental organs: Each level of government has its own executive, legislature and administrative machinery.

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(a) Meaning of a Public Corporation

A public corporation is a state-owned enterprise established by an Act of parliament (or a decree/edict) to provide essential goods and services to the public, usually on behalf of the government. It is a body corporate with a legal personality of its own, able to sue and be sued, own property and enter into contracts. Examples include the national electricity, railway and broadcasting corporations.

(b) Ways in which public corporations are controlled

1. Legislative control: The legislature that created the corporation supervises it by debating its activities, reviewing its reports and approving its budget.
2. Ministerial/executive control: The supervising minister gives policy directives, appoints board members and the chief executive, and oversees the general running of the corporation.
3. Financial/audit control: The accounts are audited by the Auditor-General and examined by public accounts committees to ensure proper use of funds.
4. Judicial control: The courts check the corporation to ensure it acts within the powers conferred on it by law and does not exceed its authority (ultra vires).
5. Public opinion control: Complaints from the public, the press and consumer bodies compel the corporation to render efficient service.

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(a) Meaning of Political Socialization

Political socialization is the process through which individuals acquire and internalise the political values, beliefs, attitudes, norms and orientations of their society. It is the way people learn about politics and government from agents such as the family, school, peer group, mass media, religious bodies and political parties. Through it, citizens come to understand their political culture and their roles in the political system.

(b) Features of a nation

1. A group of people: a nation is made up of a body of people who see themselves as belonging together.
2. Common ties and sense of belonging: the people share a feeling of oneness, common consciousness and a desire to live together as one.
3. Shared culture and history: members generally share common language, customs, traditions and historical experiences.
4. Common territory (homeland): a nation is usually associated with a definite geographical area which its people regard as their home.

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Weaknesses of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

1. Military imposition: The constitution was drawn up and handed down by the military regime without genuine popular participation, so it lacks a truly democratic origin ("We the people" is disputed).
2. Over-centralisation of power: Too many powers and resources are concentrated in the federal government at the expense of the states, weakening true federalism.
3. Contentious revenue allocation and resource control: The formula for sharing national revenue has been a source of persistent agitation, especially in the oil-producing areas.
4. Non-justiciability of Chapter Two (Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles): The socio-economic rights are not enforceable in court, so citizens cannot compel government to provide them.
5. Cumbersome amendment procedure: The rigid requirements for altering the constitution make necessary reforms difficult to achieve.
6. Ambiguities and conflicts: Some provisions are vague or contradictory, for example on state creation, local government autonomy and the roles of federal and state governments, leading to disputes.

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Ways in which public opinion is measured

Public opinion is the collective view or feeling of the majority of people on a particular issue of common concern. It can be measured or ascertained in the following ways.

1. Opinion polls and surveys: Trained pollsters interview a representative sample of the population and analyse their responses to gauge popular feeling.
2. Elections and referenda: The way people vote in elections and referendums reveals their opinion on candidates, parties and issues.
3. The mass media: Newspaper editorials, letters to the editor, phone-in programmes and social media reflect and reveal what the public is thinking.
4. Pressure groups and interest groups: The demands, petitions and campaigns of organised groups express the views of sections of the public.
5. Public meetings, rallies and demonstrations: The size and mood of crowds at rallies, protests and public gatherings indicate popular support or opposition.
6. Referendum and plebiscite results on specific questions directly show the opinion of the majority.

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Means of safeguarding the rights of citizens

1. Entrenchment in a written constitution: Fundamental human rights are written into the constitution as justiciable provisions, making them difficult to tamper with.
2. An independent judiciary: Impartial courts interpret the law, hear cases of rights violations and provide remedies to citizens whose rights are breached.
3. Rule of law and due process: Where everybody, including the government, is subject to the law and no one is punished except for a breach of law duly proved, citizens' rights are protected.
4. Separation of powers: Dividing governmental powers among the executive, legislature and judiciary, with checks and balances, prevents any organ from becoming tyrannical and abusing rights.
5. A free press and active civil society: The mass media, human rights organisations and pressure groups expose violations and mobilise opinion against abuse of rights.
6. Free and fair periodic elections: The ability to vote out oppressive governments compels rulers to respect the rights of citizens.