WAEC SSCE - Government - 1991

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The police are responsible for ensuring law and order within a society. They have several functions, including maintaining peace, preventing crime, and protecting the public. However, the police do not have the authority to enact laws. Lawmaking is the responsibility of the legislative branch of the government. The police are only authorized to enforce the laws that have been passed by the legislative branch. Therefore, "enacting laws" is not a function of the police.

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Parliamentary government is different from presidential government mainly because of the way the executive branch is structured. In a parliamentary government, the executive branch is headed by a Prime Minister, who is chosen from the members of the legislative branch (parliament). This means that the Head of Government and the legislature are connected and work together closely. In contrast, in a presidential government, the executive branch is headed by a President, who is elected separately from the legislature. This means that the President and the legislature are separate branches of government and can sometimes have competing interests. Another key difference is the role of the Head of State. In a parliamentary government, there is usually a ceremonial Head of State (such as a monarch or a president with limited powers), who represents the country in official functions but has limited political power. In a presidential government, the President serves as both the Head of State and the Head of Government, with significant political power. Overall, the main differences between parliamentary and presidential government relate to the structure of the executive branch and the role of the Head of State.

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The power of a state government to make policies, issue orders, and spend public funds is an attribute of its political authority. Political authority refers to the ability of a government to make decisions and enforce laws that affect the people within its jurisdiction. This authority is derived from the consent of the governed and is exercised through various branches of government, such as the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The state government's administrative authority, judiciary authority, and other forms of authority are all ultimately derived from its political authority, which is the foundation of its power to govern.

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When a country has experienced a continuous period of military rule or intervention, it is said to have fallen into what is called a "praetorian trap." This is because the military has become a dominant force in the country's political system, and it is difficult for civilian authorities to regain control. The term "praetorian" comes from the Praetorian Guard, an elite military unit that played a role in the Roman Empire's political power struggles. So, in essence, a country that has fallen into a praetorian trap is one where the military has become a powerful political force that undermines civilian rule and democratic processes.

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The process of creating the 1979 Constitution for a particular country began with the establishment of a constitution drafting committee in 1975. This committee was tasked with the responsibility of writing a draft of the constitution. In 1976, a 49-member committee was also established to review the draft constitution and make recommendations for improvements. During this time, a report on the constitution was published in 1976 by Rotimi Williams, which highlighted some of the key issues that needed to be addressed in the constitution. In 1976, 230 constituent assembly members were appointed to review and finalize the draft constitution. After several rounds of review and amendments, the final version of the constitution was promulgated in 1979. Therefore, the background work for the 1979 Constitution started with the establishment of the constitution drafting committee in 1975, and it involved several stages of review, recommendations, and amendments before the final promulgation of the constitution in 1979.

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The lack of interest in politics by many citizens in a country is referred to as "mass apathy". This means that people are indifferent or unconcerned about participating in the political process or making their voices heard on important issues that affect their lives. It can be caused by various factors such as disillusionment with the political system, lack of trust in politicians, or a feeling of powerlessness to effect change. Mass apathy can have significant consequences on democracy, as it can lead to a lack of accountability and a disengagement from the democratic process.

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The pre-colonial political organization described as acephalous was the Igbo political organization. This means that the Igbo society did not have a centralized system of government with a single ruler or monarch. Instead, political power was distributed among various villages and clans, each with their own governing council and leader. This system is also known as a "stateless" or "segmentary" system, where power and authority are dispersed horizontally rather than vertically.

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The Public Complaints Commission (PCC) is a government agency that helps to protect the rights of citizens by investigating complaints against public officials or institutions. Its primary function is to promote democracy, the rule of law, justice, and fundamental human rights by providing an avenue for citizens to seek redress for grievances they may have with the government. However, the PCC does not promote military dictatorship. In fact, the opposite is true: the PCC helps to promote democratic principles and the rule of law, which are antithetical to military dictatorship. Military dictatorship is a form of government in which the military has absolute power and control over the government and the citizens. It often involves the suppression of democratic institutions, the violation of human rights, and the absence of the rule of law. Therefore, the PCC does not promote military dictatorship, but rather works to promote democratic principles and the rule of law, which are essential for protecting the rights of citizens and ensuring that public officials are held accountable for their actions.

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A quasi-federal constitution typically produces a strong central government with some degree of devolution of power to the subnational units. This means that while the central government retains significant power, the subnational units also have some level of autonomy and decision-making power within their jurisdictions. Overall, a quasi-federal system tends to strike a balance between a strong central government and strong component governments. This can lead to greater stability and unity in the country, as well as a better ability to address issues that affect both the central government and the subnational units. At the same time, it also allows for some level of diversity and local decision-making, which can lead to better governance and improved outcomes for citizens. However, the specific nature and degree of power-sharing in a quasi-federal system can vary depending on the specific provisions of the constitution and the political dynamics within the country. As such, it is important to examine the specific details of each case to fully understand the implications of a quasi-federal constitution.

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The equivalent of the modern-day prime minister under the Hausa-Fulani pre-colonial system was the Waziri. The Waziri was the second most important official in the emirate after the Emir (Sarkin). He was the chief advisor to the Emir and was responsible for overseeing the day-to-day administration of the emirate. The Waziri was also responsible for representing the Emir at important ceremonies and meetings. He was chosen from among the most influential and respected members of the emirate and was expected to be a man of great wisdom and integrity.

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The Legislative Council under the 1946 constitution in Nigeria had a total of 45 members. This means that there were 45 individuals who served as representatives in the Legislative Council at that time.

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The action that is not a form of political participation is "bribing an electoral officer." Political participation refers to any activity by citizens that influence or support the governance of their country. Voting in an election, contesting an election, and joining a political party are all forms of political participation as they allow citizens to engage in the democratic process and have a say in the decisions made by their government. Paying income tax is also a form of political participation as it is a civic duty that contributes to the government's ability to provide public services. However, bribing an electoral officer is illegal and undermines the democratic process by manipulating the outcome of an election. It is a corrupt activity that goes against the principles of fair and free elections, and therefore, it is not a form of political participation.

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The problem that is not related to civil service is "Advising political leaders." Civil service refers to the body of government employees who are responsible for implementing public policies and delivering public services. While civil servants may provide advice and recommendations to their political leaders, it is not considered a problem. In fact, providing sound advice and expertise to policymakers is one of the key functions of the civil service. Now, let's briefly explain the other problems mentioned in the options: - Red-tapism: This refers to excessive bureaucracy, where officials are more focused on following rules and regulations than getting things done efficiently. - Over-devotion to precedence: This refers to a situation where officials are more concerned about following established procedures than responding to the needs of the public or making decisions based on merit. - Improper keeping of records: This refers to poor record-keeping practices, which can lead to inefficiencies, corruption, and a lack of accountability. - Poor attitude to government work: This refers to a situation where civil servants lack motivation or commitment to their work, which can result in poor performance and a lack of public trust in government institutions.

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The ten non-permanent members of the UN Security Council are elected by a simple majority of the General Assembly. This means that out of all the member countries in the UN, more than half of them need to vote in favor of a particular country to become a non-permanent member of the Security Council. This election happens every two years and the elected members serve for a period of two years.

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According to the 1979 constitution, the President has the power to sign bills into law, control the civil service, prepare and present the annual budget, and proclaim a state of emergency. However, the President does not have the power to swear in a new President. This power is usually given to another official, such as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court or the Senate President, depending on the country's laws and constitution.

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The African members of the Commonwealth of Nations that are NOT included in one of the groups listed are Guinea, Sierra Leone, Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda. Group 1 includes Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Zambia, and The Gambia. Group 2 includes Kenya, Zambia, The Gambia, Malawi, and Tanzania. Group 3 includes Nigeria, Kenya, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Ghana. Group 4 includes Nigeria, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Ghana. Group 5 includes Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana, and Zambia. Therefore, the answer is group 3, which includes Guinea and Sierra Leone, among others, as they are not mentioned in any of the other groups.

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Centralization of power is a basic feature of a unitary government. In a unitary government, the central government holds most of the power, and it delegates some powers to the local governments or sub-national units. The central government can take back these delegated powers if it sees fit. This means that decisions are made by the central government and are binding on all sub-national units. On the other hand, in a federal government, power is shared between the central government and the sub-national units, and both levels of government have their own areas of responsibility. In a confederal government, the sub-national units hold most of the power, and the central government only has limited power over them. In a presidential government, the president is the head of the executive branch of government, while in a parliamentary government, the executive branch is led by the parliament or a prime minister chosen by the parliament. However, neither of these forms of government inherently require centralization of power.

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When a pressure group is made up of people who share the same profession, it is called an "occupational group". This means that the group is made up of individuals who work in the same field or industry and who have a shared interest in promoting their professional goals and protecting their interests. For example, an occupational group for doctors might work to improve healthcare policies or to advocate for better working conditions for medical professionals. Similarly, an occupational group for teachers might lobby for increased education funding or for changes to standardized testing policies. Overall, occupational groups are one type of interest group, which is a broader term used to describe any organization or association that works to influence government policies and decisions.

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The three basic fundamental rights of citizens are life, liberty, and property. Life refers to the right to live and to be free from physical harm or injury. It means that every person has the right to exist and to be protected from any action that may endanger their life. Liberty means the right to freedom and autonomy. It encompasses various aspects of freedom, including freedom of thought, speech, and religion, as well as the freedom to pursue happiness and one's goals without undue interference from the government or others. Property refers to the right to own and control one's possessions and assets. This includes both tangible assets such as land and personal property, as well as intangible assets such as intellectual property. These three fundamental rights are essential for a democratic society, as they ensure that individuals have the basic freedom and protections necessary to live a full and meaningful life.

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The origin of democracy is associated with the Greeks. Ancient Greek city-states, such as Athens, developed a system of government that allowed citizens to participate in decision-making through voting in public assemblies. This system was called "demokratia" which means "rule by the people" in Greek. Athenian democracy is considered one of the earliest forms of democracy in the world, where citizens had the right to vote and participate in the government, regardless of their social status or wealth. The principles of Greek democracy influenced later democracies around the world, making it an important development in human history.

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Political participation in Nigeria can be limited by various factors. However, one of the options listed does not limit political participation in Nigeria, and that is religion. Decrees, which are laws passed by the government without going through the normal legislative process, can limit political participation by restricting freedoms such as freedom of speech and association. Voter's register can limit political participation by disenfranchising eligible voters who are not registered to vote. Residence can also limit political participation by making it difficult for people to participate in elections in areas where they are not registered to vote. Age can limit political participation by excluding young people who have not attained the age of majority from participating in elections. However, religion does not limit political participation in Nigeria. Nigerians of different religions are free to participate in politics and vote for candidates of their choice. While religion may influence people's political views and choices, it is not a barrier to political participation in Nigeria.

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Margaret Thatcher was succeeded by John Major as the British Prime Minister. He served as Prime Minister from 1990 to 1997, after Thatcher resigned due to internal conflicts within the Conservative Party. Major was previously a member of Thatcher's cabinet and was Chancellor of the Exchequer before becoming Prime Minister. During his tenure, Major faced challenges such as economic recession and conflicts within his own party, but also played a significant role in the Northern Ireland peace process.

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During the early colonial period in Nigeria, the governor ruled the protectorate through Proclamations. A proclamation is an official announcement made by a government or ruler, which carries the force of law. The governor had the authority to issue proclamations, which were used to create laws and regulations that governed various aspects of life in the colony, such as trade, land ownership, and taxation. These proclamations were enforced by the governor and his appointed officials, and failure to comply could result in punishment, including imprisonment or fines. Therefore, the governor's power to rule was primarily based on his ability to issue and enforce proclamations.

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Between 1922 and 1953, Nigeria had a colonial system of government. The system of government was mainly Unitary. This means that power was centralized in the hands of the British colonial authorities who ruled Nigeria from the capital city, Lagos. The colonial government controlled all aspects of governance, including legislation, executive decisions, and the judiciary. The traditional rulers and local authorities were subject to the control and influence of the colonial authorities. Therefore, the colonial government had complete control over Nigeria during this period, and the country was not self-governed. Nigeria did not become a federal republic until 1963 when it gained independence from Britain.

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The founder and editor of the West African Pilot was Nnamdi Azikiwe. He was a Nigerian journalist, politician, and statesman who played a leading role in Nigeria's struggle for independence from Britain. Azikiwe founded the West African Pilot in 1937, which was a popular newspaper in West Africa that advocated for independence and democracy. The newspaper also provided a platform for African writers and intellectuals to express their views and opinions. Azikiwe used the newspaper as a tool to mobilize people for political action, and it played a significant role in the decolonization of West Africa.

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The three basic fundamental rights of citizens are life, liberty, and property. Life refers to the right to live and be safe from harm or danger. It means that the government cannot take away someone's life without a justifiable reason, such as a lawful punishment for a crime. Liberty means the freedom to act and make choices without unreasonable interference from the government or others. It includes freedom of speech, religion, and assembly, as well as the right to a fair trial. Property refers to the right to own and use personal property and resources without interference from others or the government. It includes physical property such as homes and land, as well as intangible assets like patents and copyrights.

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The mechanism used to limit a parliamentary debate is known as "guillotine." It is a procedure that sets a time limit for the debate on a particular issue or bill in a parliamentary session. Once the time limit is reached, the debate is cut short, and a vote is taken on the issue. This is done to ensure that the parliamentary session runs smoothly and that other important issues can be addressed. The guillotine mechanism is often used in parliamentary systems to ensure that the legislative process does not become bogged down by lengthy debates on a single issue.

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One of the pioneering figures in the pan-African movement was Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois. He was an American sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist who played a significant role in advocating for the rights of African Americans and promoting pan-Africanism. Du Bois believed that people of African descent around the world shared a common history, culture, and struggle against racism and oppression. He saw the pan-African movement as a way to unite people of African descent in a common cause and to promote their social, economic, and political advancement. In 1900, Du Bois attended the first Pan-African Conference in London, which brought together African and African American leaders to discuss ways to promote the interests of people of African descent around the world. He went on to become one of the most prominent leaders of the pan-African movement, organizing subsequent conferences and advocating for the decolonization of Africa and the rights of people of African descent globally. Overall, Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois is widely recognized as a key figure in the pan-African movement, who worked tirelessly to promote unity and advancement among people of African descent around the world.

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The political arrangement that emphasizes community feeling and togetherness is called "communalism." Communalism is a political philosophy that prioritizes the interests of the community over those of individuals, and seeks to promote social harmony and cooperation within the community. It emphasizes the importance of shared values, beliefs, and traditions, and seeks to build solidarity among community members. Communalism can manifest in different ways, such as through cultural, religious, or ethnic identities. However, it can also lead to conflict with other communities, especially if there are competing interests or differences in values.

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A rigid constitution is identified by its difficult amendment procedure, which means that it cannot be easily changed. This is usually done to ensure that certain fundamental principles and values of the country are not easily altered or undermined by temporary political or social forces. The length, nature and scope of the constitution, as well as its salient provisions and sources, do not necessarily determine whether a constitution is rigid or flexible.

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The Secretary-General of the UN has a unique position because they serve as the head of the United Nations Secretariat, which is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the organization. They are appointed by the General Assembly, and unlike many other officials, they are not accountable to any individual government but to the UN as a whole. Additionally, the Secretary-General is responsible to all organs of the UN and not just one in particular. They are also assisted by several other secretarial staff in their duties.

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The transfer of political power from a central government to local authorities is known as "devolution of power" or simply "devolution." This means that certain decision-making powers and responsibilities, such as those related to public services and economic development, are shifted from the national government to regional or local governments. Decentralization is another term used to describe this process. Essentially, it allows local communities to have more control over their own affairs and to tailor policies and programs to their unique needs and circumstances.

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The election officer charged with the responsibility of announcing election results is the Returning Officer. This is the person who is in charge of overseeing the conduct of the election in a particular constituency or district. They are responsible for collecting and counting the votes, and ultimately announcing the results of the election. The Returning Officer is typically appointed by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) or the relevant electoral body, and their role is crucial in ensuring the integrity and credibility of the election process.

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In the pre-colonial political system of the Yoruba, the traditional ruler had legislative, executive, and judicial powers. This means that the ruler had the authority to make laws, enforce laws, and interpret laws. The ruler was responsible for maintaining order and resolving disputes within the community. The Yoruba political system was highly centralized, with the ruler as the ultimate authority. The ruler was advised by a council of elders, but ultimately had the final say in all matters concerning the community.

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Public opinion refers to the important political views of a large segment of the population. It represents the collective attitudes, beliefs, and preferences of the people towards different social, economic, and political issues that affect them. Public opinion is not the opinion of elites or the ruling party, nor is it limited to the political views of important groups or members of the opposition party. Rather, it encompasses the diverse opinions of ordinary citizens who share common interests and concerns about the direction of their society and government. Public opinion can be shaped by various factors such as media, education, personal experiences, and social interactions.

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In a one-party state, only one political party is officially recognized by the government, and there is no legal opposition. This means that the ruling party has a monopoly on political power and can make decisions without any opposition or challenge from other parties. Elections may still be held, but only the one recognized party is allowed to participate and win. The government may also have the power to disband any other political parties that may arise.

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A series of political crises between 1962 and 1967 destroyed national confidence and culminated in the Nigerian civil war of 1967 to 1970. Five major crises are discussed below:

1. The 1962/63 census crisis: The population figures released were widely disputed and believed to have been inflated for political advantage. Because parliamentary seats and revenue allocation depended on population, the controversy deepened mutual suspicion among the regions.
2. The Western Region crisis of 1962: A leadership struggle within the Action Group between Chief Obafemi Awolowo and Chief S. L. Akintola led to violence in the Western House of Assembly, a declaration of a state of emergency, and the eventual break-up of the party, throwing the region into disorder.
3. The 1964 federal election crisis: The general election was marred by widespread rigging, intimidation and a boycott by some parties. The disputed results and the reluctance of the President to appoint a Prime Minister created a serious constitutional deadlock.
4. The 1965 Western Region election crisis: The regional election was massively rigged in favour of Akintola's party, provoking mass protests, arson and killings popularly known as "Operation Wetie," which spread lawlessness across the West.
5. The military coups of 1966: The January 1966 coup, in which prominent Northern and Western leaders were killed, was seen as an Igbo coup. The counter-coup of July 1966 and the subsequent massacre of Igbo people in the North provoked a mass return of easterners home.

These crises, worsened by the failure of the Aburi accord, led the Eastern Region to declare the Republic of Biafra, plunging the country into civil war.

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A one-party system is one in which only a single political party is legally allowed to exist and to contest for power. For the following reasons it would not be a good option for Nigeria.

1. Nigeria's ethnic and cultural diversity: Nigeria is a plural society of many ethnic groups, religions and interests. A single party could not fairly accommodate this diversity, and any group excluded from power would feel alienated, threatening national unity.
2. Denial of freedom of choice: A one-party system deprives citizens of alternative candidates and programmes. Elections become meaningless, since the voter has no real choice, and this violates the democratic right to choose.
3. Tendency towards dictatorship: With no rival party to check it, the ruling party easily degenerates into authoritarian and dictatorial rule, suppressing opposition and dissent.
4. Absence of effective opposition: Democracy thrives on a strong opposition that criticises and checks the government. A one-party state has no legal opposition, so the government is not held accountable and mistakes go uncorrected.
5. Encouragement of corruption and abuse of power: Without the fear of being voted out or exposed by rivals, leaders in a one-party state are prone to corruption, impunity and abuse of office.
6. Suppression of fundamental human rights: Freedom of association, of expression and of the press is usually curtailed, since criticism of the sole party is treated as opposition to the state.
7. Stifling of political participation and new ideas: Citizens who disagree with the ruling party have no legitimate outlet, which discourages participation and may drive opposition underground, breeding instability and violence.

For these reasons a multi-party system, which offers choice, competition and accountability, is far more suitable for a diverse country such as Nigeria.

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The cabinet is the body of senior ministers, headed by the Prime Minister or the President, which forms the core of the executive branch. Its role in government includes the following.

1. Formulation of government policy: The cabinet is the highest policy-making body of the executive. It deliberates upon and decides the general policies of the government at home and abroad.
2. Implementation of laws and policies: Each minister heads a ministry and is responsible for executing the laws made by the legislature and the policies agreed in cabinet.
3. Coordination of government activities: The cabinet coordinates the work of the various ministries and departments so that government acts as a single, harmonious body.
4. Advising the head of government: It advises the Prime Minister or President on major national issues and on the running of the state.
5. Control and supervision of the administration: Ministers direct and supervise the civil servants in their ministries to ensure that government business is efficiently carried out.
6. Preparation of the budget and financial proposals: The cabinet, through the minister of finance, prepares the annual budget and other financial measures for presentation to the legislature.
7. Initiation of legislation: Most bills brought before the legislature originate from the cabinet, which decides the government's legislative programme.
8. Provision of political leadership: In the parliamentary system the cabinet is collectively responsible to the legislature and provides overall political leadership and direction to the nation.
9. Handling of emergencies: The cabinet takes prompt decisions and measures in times of crisis, such as war, natural disaster or serious civil disorder.

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Meaning of political participation. Political participation refers to the various ways in which citizens take part in the political process of their country. It covers all the voluntary activities through which members of a society become involved in the selection of leaders and in the making, shaping and implementation of public policy. The extent of participation varies from casual interest to full-time political activity.

Ways in which a citizen participates in politics.

1. Voting at elections: Registering as a voter and casting one's ballot to choose leaders is the most basic form of participation.
2. Membership of a political party: Joining a party, paying dues and taking part in its activities.
3. Contesting for elective office: Standing as a candidate for a political position such as councillor, legislator, governor or president.
4. Campaigning and canvassing: Mobilising support for candidates or parties and encouraging others to vote.
5. Attending political meetings and rallies: Being present at party congresses, rallies and public debates.
6. Joining pressure groups: Belonging to trade unions, professional bodies or interest groups that seek to influence government policy.
7. Discussing and forming public opinion: Debating public issues, writing to newspapers, and using the media to express political views.
8. Holding public or party office: Accepting appointment or election into government or party positions.
9. Peaceful protest and petition: Taking part in lawful demonstrations, petitions and other means of expressing grievances to government.
10. Paying taxes and obeying the law: Fulfilling civic obligations that sustain the political system.

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Federalism was adopted in Nigeria because the country's peculiar circumstances made a unitary arrangement unworkable. The following factors necessitated its adoption:

1. Large size of the country: Nigeria's vast geographical expanse made effective administration from a single centre difficult, so power was shared between the centre and the regions.
2. Ethnic and cultural diversity: Nigeria is made up of numerous ethnic groups with different languages, customs and traditions. Federalism allowed each group a measure of self-government while preserving national unity.
3. Fear of domination: The smaller ethnic groups feared domination by the larger ones (Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo). A federal structure guaranteed regional autonomy and reduced this fear.
4. Wide differences in level of development: The regions had reached uneven levels of educational, economic and social development. Federalism enabled each region to develop at its own pace.
5. Colonial administrative legacy: The British had already governed Nigeria as separate protectorates and later along regional lines, laying a structure that naturally lent itself to federalism.
6. Differences in religion: The predominantly Muslim North and the largely Christian South differed in religious and social outlook, making a decentralised system preferable.
7. Desire for unity in diversity: Federalism offered a means of holding the diverse peoples together as one nation while allowing them to manage their local affairs.

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None

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Since joining the United Nations Organisation in 1960, Nigeria has played an active and constructive role. Its contributions include the following:

1. Peacekeeping operations: Nigeria has contributed troops and police to numerous UN peacekeeping missions in the Congo, Lebanon, the former Yugoslavia, Somalia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Darfur and elsewhere, earning a reputation as a leading contributor.
2. Opposition to colonialism and apartheid: Nigeria consistently used the UN platform to campaign for the decolonisation of Africa and for the dismantling of the apartheid regime in South Africa.
3. Financial contributions: Nigeria has met its financial obligations by paying its assessed dues and contributing to various UN programmes and agencies.
4. Participation in UN organs and agencies: Nigerians have served in the General Assembly, the Security Council (as a non-permanent member on several occasions), and specialised agencies such as UNESCO, WHO and UNICEF, with citizens holding important UN positions.
5. Support for world peace and disarmament: Nigeria has supported UN efforts at peaceful settlement of disputes, disarmament and the reduction of international tension.
6. Promotion of human rights: Nigeria has supported UN conventions and declarations on human rights, refugees and the welfare of women and children.
7. Advocacy for reform: Nigeria has consistently canvassed for the reform and democratisation of the UN, including the expansion of the Security Council to give Africa permanent representation.

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A pressure group is an organised association of people who share common interests and who seek to influence government policy in their favour without themselves seeking to form the government. Pressure groups may be classified into the following types.

1. Economic or interest (protective) pressure groups: These defend the material and occupational interests of their members. Examples are trade unions such as the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC), employers' associations such as the Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN), and business groups such as chambers of commerce.
2. Professional pressure groups: These protect the interests and standards of members of a profession. Examples are the Nigerian Bar Association (NBA), the Nigerian Medical Association (NMA) and the Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT).
3. Promotional or ideological (cause) pressure groups: These promote a particular cause or idea that is not limited to their own members. Examples are human-rights bodies such as the Civil Liberties Organisation, anti-corruption groups, and environmental campaigners.
4. Religious pressure groups: These advance the interests of a religious body. Examples are the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and the Jama'atu Nasril Islam (JNI).
5. Sectional, ethnic or cultural pressure groups: These defend the interests of an ethnic or regional community. Examples are Afenifere, Ohanaeze Ndigbo and the Arewa Consultative Forum.
6. Student and youth pressure groups: These press the interests of students and young people, for example the National Association of Nigerian Students (NANS).

Some writers also distinguish between anomic groups (spontaneous, temporary groups such as riot crowds) and institutional groups (formal bodies such as the army or civil service that press their interests from within government).

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The cabinet (parliamentary) system has distinctive features that clearly separate it from the presidential system. The following are its characteristic features:

1. Fusion of powers: The executive and legislative arms are fused rather than separated. Ministers are drawn from and remain members of the legislature (parliament), unlike the presidential system where strict separation of powers exists.
2. Dual executive: There is a distinction between the Head of State (a ceremonial monarch or president) and the Head of Government (the Prime Minister who wields real executive authority). In the presidential system a single person, the President, combines both roles.
3. Collective responsibility: The cabinet is collectively responsible to the legislature. If a vote of no confidence is passed, the entire government resigns. Presidential systems have no such doctrine.
4. The Prime Minister is first among equals: The head of government is not elected directly by the people but emerges as leader of the majority party in parliament, whereas the President is directly elected by the electorate.
5. No fixed tenure of office: The government stays in power only as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature and can be removed at any time. The President enjoys a fixed term.
6. Presence of an official opposition: There is a recognised shadow cabinet formed by the minority party ready to take over government. This is not a feature of the presidential system.
7. Power to dissolve parliament: The Prime Minister can advise the Head of State to dissolve parliament and call fresh elections, a power the President does not possess.