WAEC SSCE - Government - 2003

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Zionism is a political movement that advocates for the establishment of a Jewish state in the land of Israel. The movement began in the late 19th century and gained momentum in the early 20th century. It resulted in the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, which is recognized as the homeland of the Jewish people. Therefore, the correct answer is Israel.

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The independence of the judiciary is meant to safeguard the liberties of individuals. It is an essential feature of a democratic system of government. The judiciary is an independent branch of government that is free from any undue influence or control from other branches of government or external factors. This independence ensures that judges are impartial and fair in their decisions, without fear of retaliation or favoritism. This ensures that individuals have access to a fair and just legal system, which is crucial in protecting their rights and freedoms. It also promotes accountability and transparency in government, as the judiciary acts as a check on the power of the other branches.

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The function of local government is to make bye-laws. Local governments are responsible for making and enforcing laws that apply specifically to their jurisdiction, such as towns, cities, or counties. Bye-laws are regulations that govern the behavior of people within a local government's jurisdiction. They cover issues like public health, safety, and morals. By making bye-laws, local governments can help to ensure that their communities remain safe, healthy, and orderly.

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A statutory corporation is an organization created by an Act of Parliament or law, with a separate legal existence and powers granted to it by law. These corporations are usually established to carry out specific functions on behalf of the government, and are subject to varying degrees of government control and supervision. The correct answer to the question is: a minister. Statutory corporations are usually established and overseen by government ministries or departments, and the minister responsible for the portfolio that includes the corporation is typically the one who exercises oversight and control over its activities.

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Oligarchy implies rulership by a few powerful individuals. It is a system of government where a small group of people holds all the power and control over a country or organization. The word "oligarchy" comes from the Greek words "oligos," meaning "few," and "arkhein," meaning "to rule." In an oligarchic system, the ruling class may come from a specific social, economic, or political background, and they often use their power to maintain their privileged position and control the resources of the state.

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The most widespread agent of public opinion is the mass media. This includes various forms of communication that reach large numbers of people, such as newspapers, television, radio, and the internet. The mass media has a significant influence on shaping public opinion by providing information, interpreting events, and offering commentary on issues. Its influence is particularly important in democratic societies, where an informed and engaged citizenry is necessary for effective governance. While the other agents of public opinion - schools, interest groups, and political parties - also play a role in shaping public opinion, the mass media's reach and influence is the most extensive.

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The Headquarters of the United Nations Organization is located at New York. It is situated on the East side of Manhattan, in the Turtle Bay neighbourhood, on a tract of land overlooking the East River. The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization that was established in 1945 to promote international cooperation and resolve conflicts between countries. Its headquarters in New York City serve as a venue for member states to meet and discuss global issues, including peace and security, development, and human rights.

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The constitution of 1954 made Nigeria a federal state because it provided for a division of functions between the central government and the component states. This means that certain powers were assigned to the federal government, while others were assigned to the states. This division of power ensured that both the central government and the states had a degree of autonomy, and that power was not concentrated in one location. This is a fundamental feature of a federal state. While the other options may have been features of the constitution, they do not directly explain why Nigeria was a federal state under the constitution of 1954.

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The manifesto of a political party is a document that outlines the party's programme or agenda. It is a statement of the party's policies, goals, and aspirations, which they plan to implement if they win an election. It contains the party's position on various issues, such as the economy, education, healthcare, security, foreign policy, and social welfare. The manifesto is usually presented to the public during an election campaign, and it is a means for the party to communicate its plans and vision to the electorate. The manifesto is a key tool in helping voters make an informed decision when choosing which party to vote for.

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An indirect form of election is one in which voters do not directly elect their representatives. Instead, they elect other individuals who then have the responsibility of selecting the representative. The Electoral college is an example of an indirect form of election, as voters do not directly elect the President and Vice President of the United States. Instead, they vote for a slate of electors who then cast their votes for the President and Vice President.

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A two-party system of government enables the electorate to choose freely between alternatives. In a two-party system, two major political parties dominate the political landscape and compete for power. This gives the electorate the opportunity to choose between two main alternatives that represent different political ideologies or agendas. This creates a competitive environment in which political parties are motivated to address the concerns of the electorate and present policies that are appealing to the majority. In this way, a two-party system promotes political competition, diversity of opinion, and the possibility of change through electoral processes.

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The policy which sought to turn Africans into Frenchmen and rule them through institutions similar to those in France was called "assimilation". This policy was introduced by the French colonial government in the late 19th century and was aimed at making the colonies an integral part of France. The policy was based on the belief that African culture was inferior to European culture, and that the best way to civilize the Africans was to make them French. The policy of assimilation was implemented through a number of measures, including the establishment of French schools, the introduction of French language, the adoption of French laws and customs, and the granting of French citizenship to a select few Africans. The policy of assimilation was later abandoned in favor of a more limited policy of association, which recognized African culture and customs, but the effects of assimilation were long-lasting and still felt in many former French colonies today.

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Zionism resulted in the establishment of the state of Israel. Zionism is a political and cultural movement that advocates for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in the land of Israel. The movement gained momentum in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and in 1948, Israel declared independence, marking the fulfillment of the Zionist dream.

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The highest organ of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) is the Assembly of Heads of State. The assembly is composed of all the heads of state or government of member states of the OAU. It meets once a year to discuss and make decisions on matters of common interest to the continent, such as peace and security, economic development, and regional integration. The assembly is responsible for setting the overall policy direction and priorities of the organization.

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Government as an institution of the state refers to the collective body that has the power to make and enforce laws, regulations, and policies within a country or region. It includes the legislature, which is responsible for making laws, the executive, which is responsible for implementing and enforcing those laws, and the judiciary, which is responsible for interpreting and adjudicating disputes under the law. Other important institutions that fall under the purview of government may include economic and political institutions, such as central banks, regulatory agencies, and political parties.

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One of the main functions of an election is the legitimization of the government. Elections provide citizens with the opportunity to choose their leaders through a fair and transparent process. By participating in elections, citizens give their consent to be governed by the elected officials, and the elected officials obtain a mandate to make decisions on behalf of the people. This process helps to ensure that the government is accountable to the people and operates in their best interest. Therefore, the legitimacy of the government is one of the essential functions of an election.

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A pressure group is an organization that seeks to influence government policies or decisions without seeking to directly control the government or contest elections. Therefore, the major objective of a pressure group is to influence policies of government by using various methods such as lobbying, protests, and campaigns. The ultimate goal of a pressure group is to bring about changes in government policies or decisions that are aligned with the interests of the group's members or supporters. Pressure groups can represent different interests such as business, labor, environmental, and social justice issues.

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In a constitutional monarchy, the Head of State is a monarch who performs mainly ceremonial functions. This means that the monarch does not have executive, judicial, or administrative powers, but instead represents the nation symbolically and performs various ceremonial duties. The actual governing of the country is carried out by elected officials, such as the prime minister and other members of the government. The monarch's role is largely symbolic and serves to promote a sense of unity and continuity in the country's traditions and history.

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The concept of sovereignty was first introduced into political terminology by Jean Bodin in 1576. Jean Bodin was a French jurist and political philosopher who is considered as one of the most important figures in the development of modern political thought. He defined sovereignty as the supreme power of the state to make and enforce laws within its own territory without interference from any external authority. His definition of sovereignty became the basis of modern political theory and the cornerstone of modern statehood.

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The Loi cadre was passed in 1956. The Loi cadre, which translates to "framework law," was a French law that established a framework for local government in French West Africa. It provided for the creation of territorial assemblies and councils with limited powers, with the ultimate goal of preparing French West Africa for self-government. The law was passed on August 23, 1956, and went into effect on January 1, 1957.

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The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was established in 1963 with the primary aim of promoting unity and solidarity among African countries. The annual budget of the OAU is approved by the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers is the highest decision-making body of the OAU, consisting of ministers of foreign affairs or other designated officials from member states. The Council of Ministers meets annually to discuss and make decisions on issues of common interest to African countries, including the budget of the organization. Therefore, the correct answer is the Council of Ministers.

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The law-making body in Nigeria is called the National Assembly. The National Assembly is a bicameral legislature consisting of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate has 109 members while the House of Representatives has 360 members. The National Assembly is responsible for making laws, approving budgets, and overseeing the activities of the executive branch of government in Nigeria.

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Red tapism can be defined as the bureaucratic practice of adhering to formalities and following strict procedures, even if they are unnecessary or inefficient. It involves a rigid dependence on routine and rules by civil servants, often resulting in delays and inefficiencies in government processes. Red tapism can lead to frustration and corruption, as people seek shortcuts to bypass the lengthy and bureaucratic processes. It is often criticized for hindering progress and development, particularly in developing countries where there is a lack of resources and infrastructure.

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The benefit that a country aims to gain in its interactions with other countries is called "national interest." National interest refers to the country's goals and ambitions in the international arena, which may include economic, political, and security interests. It is often driven by a desire to promote the country's welfare and ensure its survival in the face of global challenges. National interest is a key component of a country's foreign policy, and guides its decisions and actions in international relations.

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Montesquieu's theory of separation of powers aims to prevent tyranny by dividing the powers of government into three separate branches: the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. Each branch has its own distinct powers and functions, and they are intended to provide a system of checks and balances on one another. This means that no one branch has complete control or authority over the government, and that any abuse of power by one branch can be checked and balanced by the other branches. The ultimate goal is to safeguard individual liberty and promote the rule of law.

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It is most unlikely for members nations of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to fuse into one political entity. This is because each member nation of ECOWAS has its own unique history, culture, and political system, and the sovereignty of each member nation is recognized and respected. Therefore, the aim of ECOWAS is to promote economic integration and regional cooperation among member nations while preserving their individual sovereignty. While there have been discussions about closer political integration among member nations, such as the proposed creation of a single currency, it is unlikely that ECOWAS will evolve into a single political entity, as this would require significant changes to the political structures and systems of each member nation.

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Citizens who are legally qualified to vote form the electorate. The electorate is a group of people who are entitled to participate in the election of their representatives to the government. In a democratic system, the electorate is considered an important part of the political process, as they have the power to choose the individuals who will represent their interests in government. The term is commonly used in reference to voters in a particular constituency or region.

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Many African leaders adopted the single-party system of government after independence to promote national unity. This is because they believed that a single-party system would help to eliminate ethnic, religious, and regional divisions that could threaten the stability of their countries. They also believed that a single-party system would allow for more effective decision-making and rapid development, as the ruling party could act more decisively and efficiently without the need for extensive political negotiations or compromises. However, this often led to a lack of political competition, which in turn stifled democratic processes and limited the protection of fundamental human rights.

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A system in which two or more political parties form the government is called a coalition. This means that these political parties come together to form a government and work together to achieve their goals. In a coalition system, no single party has enough seats in the legislature to form a government on its own, so multiple parties must work together to create a governing coalition. This is often done to achieve a more stable government or to represent a broader range of interests and perspectives.

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The responsibility of dividing a country into constituencies and accepting the nomination of candidates for elections are the key roles of an Electoral Commission. An electoral commission is an independent body that is responsible for organizing and conducting free and fair elections. In most countries, the electoral commission is given a mandate by the Constitution to ensure that elections are conducted in accordance with the law. The commission is responsible for many aspects of the election process, including voter registration, preparation of the electoral roll, nomination of candidates, and the administration of polling stations. In summary, the electoral commission is responsible for overseeing the entire electoral process and ensuring that it is free, fair, and transparent.

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The description given in the question refers to the concept of "liberty" or "individual freedom". It means that individuals are free to act and make choices as long as they do not break the law or infringe upon the rights of others. This concept is often seen as a fundamental aspect of democratic societies, where citizens are granted certain freedoms and rights that the government cannot take away.

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A fascist regime is both authoritarian and totalitarian. Authoritarian means that it enforces strict obedience to authority at the expense of personal freedom, while totalitarian means that it aims to control all aspects of society and the individual's life. Fascist regimes are characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and control of industry and commerce. Therefore, they are considered to be both authoritarian and totalitarian.

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The principle of non-alignment means that a country does not belong to any of the power blocs. In other words, the country does not align itself with any of the major political or military alliances or blocks, such as NATO or the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War. Non-alignment is often seen as a way for countries to maintain their independence and sovereignty in international affairs, and to pursue their own interests without being drawn into the conflicts or disputes of others.

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The international organization formed after the Second World War to guarantee international peace and security is called the United Nations Organization (UNO). The UNO was established on October 24, 1945, with the aim of promoting cooperation among nations, maintaining peace and security, and resolving conflicts through peaceful means. It is currently made up of 193 member states and operates through various bodies such as the General Assembly, Security Council, and International Court of Justice.

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Authority means legitimate right to be obeyed. It is the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. An individual or an organization having authority has the legal or rightful power to exercise control over others, and others are obligated to obey their orders or decisions. Authority can be conferred by law, by contract or by general consent of the members of a society or a group. It is an essential aspect of any organized society or institution, as it establishes the chain of command and helps maintain order and discipline.

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An institution which seeks to redress people's grievances against abuse of administrative power is the Ombudsman. An ombudsman is an official appointed by the government or parliament to investigate complaints made by individuals against public officials or government agencies. The ombudsman is responsible for ensuring that the government and its officials act in accordance with the law and in a fair and transparent manner. The ombudsman is empowered to conduct investigations, issue recommendations, and make public reports on the findings of those investigations. The aim is to provide a means of redress for citizens who feel that they have been mistreated or have suffered a miscarriage of justice as a result of administrative action.

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ECOMOG stands for ECOWAS Monitoring Group. It was a multinational military force established by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to intervene in conflicts in West Africa during the 1990s. The primary objective of ECOMOG was to promote peace and stability in the region by monitoring and enforcing ceasefires, disarming combatants, and protecting civilians. ECOMOG played a critical role in resolving several conflicts in the region, including the Liberian civil war and the Sierra Leone civil war.

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Authority refers to the legitimate right or power to give orders, make decisions, or enforce obedience. It is not an automatic right to be obeyed, but rather a right that is granted or recognized by law, tradition, or popular consent. Those who hold authority are expected to use it responsibly and in accordance with established rules and procedures, and those who are subject to authority are expected to obey its commands within the limits of law and morality. Therefore, authority is not a civic right to obey others, but a civic right to be obeyed when it is legitimate and lawful.

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Under the British colonial administration, the Executive Council was purely an advisory body. The Executive Council was a group of high-ranking officials appointed by the British colonial government to advise the Governor on matters of administration in the colonies. They were responsible for giving advice on matters such as policy, appointments, and budgets. However, the ultimate decision-making power rested with the Governor, who was the representative of the British Crown in the colony.

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Power is different from authority because power lacks legitimacy. Power can be seen as the ability to influence or control others, even without their consent or approval. Authority, on the other hand, is the right to exercise power, granted by society and accepted as legitimate. In other words, authority is the legal and moral right to exercise power over others, while power can be exercised through force, coercion or manipulation, and may not necessarily have the backing of society or the law.

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Franchise owes its evolution to the development of representative government. In early history, only a select few individuals were allowed to participate in government and make decisions. However, with the emergence of representative government, the idea of granting the right to vote to the general public gained traction. Franchise refers to the right to vote in an election, and it was gradually extended to more people over time, including women and minorities who were previously excluded. This expansion of the franchise was a result of the belief that all citizens should have a say in the decisions that affect them, and it is now considered a fundamental aspect of democratic societies.

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(a) Organisational structure of the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)

The NYM was organised as a modern political association with the following structure:

1. National officers / central leadership: At the top was a body of national officers, led by a President, supported by a Vice-President, General Secretary, Treasurer, Financial Secretary, Publicity Secretary and other officers who directed the affairs of the movement.
2. The Executive Committee (Central Executive): A national executive committee made up of the principal officers and elected members ran the day-to-day administration and took major decisions between conventions.
3. The Annual Convention / General Assembly: This was the supreme decision-making organ where delegates from the branches met to lay down policy, elect officers and adopt programmes such as the Nigerian Youth Charter.
4. Branches: The movement established branches in Lagos and in various provincial towns across Nigeria, each with its own local officers, giving it a country-wide network unlike earlier Lagos-based parties.
5. General membership: Membership was open to Nigerians who subscribed to its aims, paid dues and supported its programme; the members formed the base of the organisation.
6. Organ of publicity: The movement ran the Daily Service newspaper as its mouthpiece for spreading its ideas and mobilising support.

(b) What led to its collapse

1. The Ikoli-Akinsanya leadership crisis (1941): A bitter dispute broke out over who should fill the Legislative Council seat vacated by Kofoworola Abayomi. The contest between Ernest Ikoli and Samuel Akinsanya, and the way it was handled, split the leadership.
2. Ethnic and personal rivalry: The crisis assumed an ethnic colouring, and the withdrawal of Nnamdi Azikiwe and many of his supporters from the movement, following the dispute, dealt it a fatal blow.
3. Personality clashes and ambition: Rivalry and distrust among the leading personalities (Ikoli, Akinsanya, Azikiwe, Davies and others) destroyed the unity of the movement.
4. Disagreement over aims and strategy: Differences over methods and direction weakened cohesion.
5. Mass resignations and loss of support: The resignations that followed the crisis drained the movement of members and finance, so that it lost its influence and effectively disintegrated, paving the way for the emergence of the NCNC in 1944.

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(a) Three fundamental human rights of a citizen

Fundamental human rights are the basic entitlements guaranteed to every citizen by the constitution, which the state is bound to protect. Three of them are:

1. Right to life: Every citizen is entitled to live, and no one may be deprived of life except in the execution of a lawful sentence passed by a competent court.
2. Right to personal liberty: No citizen may be arrested or detained arbitrarily; a person may only be deprived of liberty in accordance with due process of law.
3. Right to fair hearing: Every citizen is entitled to a fair and public trial within a reasonable time by an impartial court, and is presumed innocent until proved guilty.
4. Right to freedom of expression: Every citizen has the right to hold opinions and to receive and impart ideas and information without interference.
5. Right to freedom of movement: Every citizen is entitled to move freely throughout the country and to reside in any part of it.

(Any three of the above are acceptable.)

(b) Limitations to these rights

Fundamental rights are not absolute; they are subject to limitations designed to protect the wider society. They may be restricted:

1. In the interest of public order, safety and security: Rights such as movement and assembly may be curtailed to prevent riots, crime or breach of the peace.
2. In the interest of public health and morality: Freedoms may be limited to control epidemics or to protect public decency and morals.
3. During a state of emergency or war: Government may lawfully suspend or restrict certain rights when the security of the state is threatened.
4. To protect the rights and freedoms of other persons: One citizen's exercise of a right must not injure the rights, reputation or property of others (for example, freedom of expression is limited by the law of libel and slander).
5. By the ordinary operation of the law: A person lawfully convicted by a court may be deprived of liberty or, in some jurisdictions, of life; and lawful detention and taxation restrict individual freedom.

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Federalism is a system of government in which powers are constitutionally shared between a central (federal) government and the component units (regions or states), each being coordinate and independent within its own sphere. The conditions that gave rise to the adoption of federalism in Nigeria include the following:

1. Large size of the country: Nigeria is very large in area. A federal arrangement was necessary so that government could be brought closer to the people in different parts of the country and administration made more manageable.
2. Ethnic and cultural diversity: Nigeria is made up of many ethnic groups (notably the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo) with different languages, customs and traditions. Federalism allowed these diverse groups to live together while retaining a measure of self-rule and protecting their identities.
3. Fear of domination: The smaller ethnic groups and the various regions feared being dominated by any one large group. Federalism, by dividing power among the units, reassured each group that it would not be swallowed up by the others.
4. Wide differences in the pace of development: The regions differed greatly in Western education, economic development and social outlook (the South being more advanced in Western education than the North). Federalism enabled each region to develop at its own pace.
5. Influence of colonial policy and earlier regionalisation: The British had already divided Nigeria into regions (under the Richards and Macpherson Constitutions), and the regional structure created a foundation on which federalism was built.
6. Desire for unity in diversity: There was a need to hold the country together as one nation while allowing the different peoples to manage their local affairs; federalism offered unity without enforcing uniformity.
7. Uneven distribution of population and resources: Differences in population size and in the distribution of natural resources made a single centralised (unitary) system unworkable and pushed the country towards a federal solution.

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The executive is the organ of government that formulates and implements policies and administers the affairs of the state. Because it wields enormous powers, various controls exist to prevent it from becoming arbitrary or dictatorial. These controls include the following:

1. Control by the constitution: The powers of the executive are defined and limited by the constitution. Any act done beyond these powers (ultra vires) is invalid, and the doctrine of constitutionalism binds the executive to act only within the law.
2. Control by the legislature: The legislature checks the executive by making the laws it must implement, approving the budget and controlling public finance, questioning ministers, conducting investigations through committees, and (in a parliamentary system) passing a vote of no confidence. It may also impeach the president or reject his appointments and treaties.
3. Control by the judiciary: Through judicial review, the courts can declare the acts and orders of the executive null and void where they are unconstitutional or contrary to law. The courts protect citizens' rights against executive abuse.
4. The doctrine of separation of powers and checks and balances: By separating the executive from the legislature and judiciary and enabling each to check the others, the concentration of power in the executive is prevented.
5. Control by public opinion and the mass media: A free press, radio and public criticism expose executive misconduct and compel the executive to act responsibly and account to the people.
6. Control through periodic elections: The electorate can vote out an unpopular or oppressive executive at regular elections, making the executive answerable to the people.
7. Control by political parties and pressure groups: Opposition parties criticise and monitor government, while pressure groups and civil society organisations mobilise resistance to unpopular executive actions.
8. Internal administrative controls: Bodies such as the ombudsman (public complaints commission), the auditor-general, anti-corruption agencies and the civil service rules check administrative abuse and financial misconduct within the executive.
9. International control: International opinion, treaty obligations and bodies such as the AU, ECOWAS and the UN can restrain an executive that violates human rights or international law.

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An electoral system is the method by which votes cast in an election are counted and translated into seats or into the choice of a winner. The four systems named are explained below.

(a) Simple plurality system (First-past-the-post): Under this system the candidate who scores the highest number of votes is declared the winner, whether or not that number amounts to more than half of the total votes cast. The winner needs only a plurality (more votes than any other single candidate), not an absolute majority. For example, if in a constituency candidate A polls 30,000 votes, B polls 25,000 and C polls 20,000, A wins even though A's votes are less than half of all votes cast. It is simple and produces quick results but may allow a candidate to win with less than half of the total votes.

(b) The repeated ballot: Under this system, if no candidate obtains the required absolute majority (more than half of the votes) in the first round of voting, the election is repeated over and over again, using the same set of candidates, until one candidate finally secures an absolute majority. Weak candidates may withdraw between rounds. Its weakness is that voting may have to be repeated many times, making it slow, tiring and expensive.

(c) The second ballot: Here, if no candidate wins an absolute majority in the first ballot, a second and final ballot is held. In the second round, only the two candidates who scored the highest votes in the first ballot are allowed to contest (or, in some versions, only candidates who passed a stated threshold). The one who wins the second ballot is declared elected. It guarantees that the winner enjoys majority support without endless repetition, but it requires the expense of organising two separate elections.

(d) The alternative vote (preferential voting): Under this system the voter does not simply mark one candidate; instead the voter ranks the candidates in order of preference (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and so on) on a single ballot. If a candidate obtains an absolute majority of first-preference votes, that candidate wins. If not, the candidate with the fewest first-preference votes is eliminated and that candidate's votes are transferred to the remaining candidates according to the second preferences marked on them. The process of eliminating the lowest candidate and redistributing votes continues until one candidate secures an absolute majority. It produces a majority winner from a single ballot, but the counting is more complex.

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Assimilation was the French colonial policy which aimed to turn Africans in the colonies into black Frenchmen by making them adopt French language, culture, law and citizenship, and by integrating the colonies with metropolitan France. In practice the policy largely failed, especially outside the Four Communes of Senegal. The factors responsible for its failure include the following:

1. Wide cultural differences: African social systems, languages, religions and customs were deeply rooted and very different from French culture. Africans were unwilling to abandon their own way of life, and complete cultural conversion proved impossible.
2. Racial prejudice of the French: Despite the theory of equality, many French settlers and officials regarded Africans as inferior and were unwilling to accept them as true equals or fellow citizens, which contradicted the very idea of assimilation.
3. The huge population involved: The African population was too large to be assimilated. It was practically and financially impossible to turn millions of Africans into educated French citizens.
4. Inadequate educational facilities: Assimilation depended on French education, but the schools provided were far too few to educate the mass of the people, so only a tiny minority could ever qualify as citizens.
5. Cost of the policy: Providing the schools, welfare and institutions needed to assimilate Africans on a large scale was too expensive for France to sustain.
6. Opposition from French commercial and settler interests: Merchants and settlers feared that assimilated Africans would compete with them and demand equal rights, so they resisted the extension of citizenship.
7. Stiff conditions for citizenship: The requirements for becoming a French citizen (fluency in French, monogamy, evidence of French culture and loyalty, and so on) were so stringent that very few Africans could satisfy them.
8. African resistance and nationalism: Africans increasingly rejected the denial of their identity and resented being asked to renounce their heritage, giving rise to opposition that made the policy unworkable.

Because of these difficulties, France gradually abandoned pure assimilation in favour of the modified policy of association.

Detalles de la respuesta

In British West Africa before the Second World War, the Legislative Council was the law-making body in each colony, but it was firmly controlled by the colonial power so that real authority remained in British hands. The ways in which it was controlled include the following:

1. Official majority: The council was dominated by an official majority, that is, colonial officials (heads of departments and nominated officers) who outnumbered the unofficial and African members. Since officials were bound to vote as the Governor directed, the government could always carry any measure it wanted.
2. The Governor's presidency and control: The Governor presided over the council and controlled its business. He determined when it met, what it discussed and could dominate its proceedings.
3. Nomination rather than election: Most members, including the few Africans, were nominated by the Governor rather than elected by the people. Only a very small number of seats (in Lagos, Calabar and later a few coastal towns) were elective. Nominated members owed their positions to the Governor and could be removed by him.
4. The Governor's reserve and veto powers: The Governor possessed reserve powers to pass any bill the council rejected, and to certify measures as necessary in the public interest. He could also veto or refuse assent to bills.
5. Control by the Colonial Office in London: The Secretary of State for the Colonies in London supervised the council. Laws could be disallowed by the Crown, and the Governor acted on instructions from London.
6. Limited jurisdiction: The competence of the council was restricted, often to the Colony and not the whole territory (for example the Protectorate of Northern and Southern Nigeria was outside its full reach), and financial matters were closely controlled.
7. Restricted franchise and property qualification: The few elective seats were based on a narrow franchise with high property and income qualifications, so only a handful of Africans could vote, keeping popular control minimal.

In sum, through the official majority, nomination, restricted franchise and the Governor's overriding powers, the Legislative Council remained an instrument of colonial control rather than an organ of self-government.

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Since independence, many West African states abandoned the inherited parliamentary system for the presidential system. The factors that increased the popularity of the presidential system in the region include the following:

1. Desire for a strong and stable executive: The parliamentary system, with its dependence on shifting party coalitions and votes of no confidence, produced instability. The presidential system, with a fixed tenure for the president, offered a more stable and decisive executive suited to the tasks of nation-building and development.
2. Separation of powers: The presidential system separates the executive, legislature and judiciary, providing clearer checks and balances and reducing the domination of the legislature by the executive that occurred under the parliamentary system.
3. The need for national unity in plural societies: A single, directly elected president who represents the whole nation was seen as a symbol of unity in ethnically divided states, unlike a prime minister who is essentially a party leader.
4. Direct election and popular mandate: The president is chosen by the whole electorate, giving the office a broad national mandate and making the leader directly accountable to the people rather than to Parliament.
5. Reaction against the abuses of the parliamentary system: The fusion of powers under the parliamentary system had enabled prime ministers to become dictatorial and had contributed to crises and military coups. States turned to the presidential model hoping to correct these defects.
6. Influence of the American and French examples: The success and prestige of the presidential systems of the United States and the French Fifth Republic served as models copied by West African states.
7. Clear division of loyalty and a fixed tenure: Because the president cannot easily be removed except through impeachment, the system promised continuity of policy and freedom from the frequent government changes of the parliamentary system.

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Government as an academic field of study refers to the branch of the social sciences that is concerned with the systematic study of the state, its institutions, and the ways in which power and authority are acquired, organised, exercised and controlled in a political community. As a discipline it is closely related to, and sometimes treated as another name for, political science.

As a field of study, government examines the following:

1. The state and its institutions: It studies the origin, nature and purpose of the state and the institutions of government, namely the legislature, the executive and the judiciary.
2. Political concepts and ideas: It analyses key concepts such as power, authority, legitimacy, sovereignty, liberty, rights, democracy, and the rule of law.
3. Systems and forms of government: It compares different systems (for example presidential and parliamentary, unitary and federal, democratic and authoritarian) and the constitutions on which they are based.
4. Political processes: It studies elections, political parties, pressure groups, public opinion, and the making and implementation of public policy.
5. Relations among states: It also covers international relations and organisations such as the United Nations, the AU and ECOWAS.

As an academic discipline, government is systematic and analytical: it uses observation, comparison and reasoned analysis to describe political facts, explain political behaviour, and evaluate political arrangements. It is therefore both a body of organised knowledge about how societies are governed and a method of studying political life scientifically.

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The Organization of African Unity (OAU), founded in 1963 and succeeded by the African Union in 2002, was created to promote unity and co-operation among African states. The member states co-operated with one another in the following ways:

1. Political co-operation and defence of sovereignty: Members agreed to respect one another's sovereignty and territorial integrity, to refrain from interfering in one another's internal affairs, and to settle their disputes peacefully, thereby maintaining peace among themselves.
2. Liberation of the continent: Through the OAU Liberation Committee, members co-operated by giving moral, financial and material support to nationalist movements fighting colonialism and apartheid in territories such as Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
3. Economic co-operation: Members co-operated to promote trade, harmonise economic policies, encourage joint development projects and reduce dependence on the former colonial powers, laying the basis for continental economic integration.
4. Peaceful settlement of disputes: The OAU established a Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration and used its machinery to mediate in border and other conflicts among member states (for example between Algeria and Morocco, and Somalia and its neighbours).
5. Cultural, educational and social co-operation: Members co-operated in education, science, health, culture and sports, exchanging teachers, students and expertise, and promoting African identity and solidarity.
6. Common stand in world affairs: Member states co-operated by adopting common positions and speaking with one voice in international organisations such as the United Nations, and by pursuing non-alignment in the cold-war rivalry.
7. Mutual assistance and solidarity: Members assisted one another in times of natural disaster, refugee crises and emergencies, and stood together against external aggression and neo-colonialism.

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After the Second World War, Britain introduced new constitutions in her West African colonies (for example the Richards Constitution of 1946 in Nigeria and the Burns Constitution of 1946 in the Gold Coast). Nationalists criticised these post-1945 constitutions for the following reasons:

1. Lack of adequate consultation: The constitutions, especially the Richards Constitution, were imposed on the people without genuine consultation with the nationalists and the population, who resented being handed a constitution they had no part in framing.
2. Retention of colonial control (official majority and reserved powers): Real power was still concentrated in the hands of the Governor and colonial officials. The Governor retained reserve and veto powers, so the constitutions did not transfer meaningful authority to Nigerians or Africans.
3. Limited African representation and the nominated principle: Africans remained under-represented, and many members were nominated by the Governor rather than elected by the people, so the legislatures were not truly representative.
4. Very restricted franchise: The right to vote was limited by high property and income qualifications and confined to a few towns, so the great majority of the people had no vote.
5. No real responsible government: The constitutions gave Africans no control over the executive; there was no ministerial responsibility, and the executive council was not answerable to the legislature.
6. Emphasis on regionalism and division: The Richards Constitution divided Nigeria into three regions, which nationalists condemned as a device to divide the country along ethnic lines and weaken the united nationalist front.
7. Slow pace towards self-government: The constitutions made no clear provision for early self-government or independence, and their reforms fell far short of nationalist demands.

Because of these defects, nationalist agitation forced Britain to revise the constitutions, leading to the more liberal Macpherson (1951) and later constitutions.

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Before colonial rule, traditional rulers in West Africa (obas, emirs, chiefs and natural rulers) exercised wide executive, legislative, judicial, military and religious powers over their peoples. Colonial rule greatly reduced these powers in the following ways:

1. Loss of sovereignty to the colonial power: Once a territory was annexed, ultimate authority passed to the colonial government. Traditional rulers ceased to be independent sovereigns and became subordinate agents of the colonial administration.
2. Subordination through indirect rule: Where indirect rule was applied, chiefs governed only as instruments of the colonial power, under the supervision and direction of colonial officers (Residents and District Officers) who could over-rule them.
3. Deposition and appointment of rulers: The colonial authorities acquired the power to appoint, depose, suspend or exile rulers. A ruler who resisted could be removed, so kingship depended increasingly on colonial approval rather than on custom alone.
4. Loss of military power: Colonial governments disbanded the traditional armies and monopolised the use of force through their own police and soldiers, stripping rulers of their war-making and defensive authority.
5. Loss of judicial powers: The establishment of colonial courts and the introduction of English (or French) law limited the jurisdiction of traditional courts. Native courts operated only under colonial control, and appeals lay to colonial courts.
6. Loss of control over taxation and finance: Colonial governments took over the assessment and collection of taxes and controlled public revenue, so rulers lost their former financial independence and were often reduced to salaried officials.
7. Reduction of legislative power: Law-making authority passed to colonial legislatures and governors, so the customary law-making role of the rulers and their councils was curtailed.
8. Erosion of religious and spiritual authority: The spread of Christianity and Western education, together with colonial disregard for traditional religious sanctions, weakened the sacred aura on which the authority of many rulers had rested.
9. The French policy of assimilation and direct rule: In French territories, chiefs were reduced to mere administrative agents (chefs de canton) who could be transferred at will, and traditional institutions were largely disregarded.