WAEC SSCE - Government - 2010

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A citizen's freedom of movement may be restrained if he has been convicted by the courts. When an individual is convicted of a crime by a court of law, he may be sentenced to various forms of punishment, which may include imprisonment, probation, or community service. One of the consequences of these punishments is that the individual's freedom of movement may be restricted. For example, if an individual is sentenced to a term of imprisonment, he will be confined to a specific location (i.e., the prison) for the duration of his sentence. This means that he will not be able to move about freely as he would if he were not under the supervision of the state.

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During the Cold War, most West African countries pursued a policy of non-alignment, which means they did not align with either the Western bloc led by the United States or the Eastern bloc led by the Soviet Union. They generally maintained good relations with both sides and pursued policies that were in their own best interests. Some West African countries, such as Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah, initially leaned towards the Eastern bloc, but later moved towards non-alignment. Therefore, the correct answer is: Non-alignment with any power bloc.

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A bicameral legislature refers to a legislative body that is made up of two separate chambers or houses. In this type of legislature, there is usually an upper house and a lower house, with each chamber having its own distinct functions and responsibilities. The upper house is typically seen as the more prestigious or powerful of the two chambers, while the lower house is usually more representative of the general population. The purpose of a bicameral legislature is to provide checks and balances on the legislative process, with each chamber providing a different perspective and ensuring that laws are thoroughly reviewed and debated before they are passed. In contrast, a one-chamber legislature, also known as a unicameral legislature, has only one house or chamber.

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The Administrative Headquarters of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is located in Abuja, which is the capital city of Nigeria. The headquarters serves as the central location for ECOWAS to coordinate its activities and programs across its 15 member states in West Africa. ECOWAS is a regional economic organization that was established in 1975 to promote economic integration, peace, and stability in West Africa. It has played a significant role in advancing regional trade and cooperation, as well as addressing political and security challenges in the region.

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The arrangement by which a country is divided into parts for election purposes is called delimitation. Delimitation is the process of drawing electoral boundaries, also known as constituencies or electoral districts, to ensure fair and equal representation in elections. Delimitation is an important process in democratic elections because it ensures that each constituency has a roughly equal number of voters, which helps to ensure that each vote carries the same weight. It also helps to prevent gerrymandering, which is the manipulation of electoral boundaries for political gain. Enfranchisement, on the other hand, refers to the granting of the right to vote to eligible citizens, while democratization refers to the process of transitioning to a more democratic form of government. In summary, the arrangement by which a country is divided into parts for election purposes is called delimitation. It is an important process in democratic elections that helps to ensure fair and equal representation.

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A short break in parliamentary session is referred to as a recess. A recess is a temporary interruption in the proceedings of a legislative body, such as a parliament or a congress. During a recess, members of the legislative body may take a break, leave the chamber, and attend to other matters. Recesses can be scheduled or unscheduled, depending on the circumstances. For example, in some parliamentary systems, recesses are scheduled to coincide with public holidays or other events. A recess can last from a few minutes to several weeks, depending on the length of the parliamentary session and the needs of the legislative body. Recesses are different from suspensions, which involve the temporary suspension of parliamentary proceedings due to a dispute or other emergency, and dissolution, which is the formal end of a parliamentary session.

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Popular sovereignty is located in the electorate. Popular sovereignty is a principle in democracy that holds that the ultimate source of political power and authority is the people. It means that the people have the power to determine how they are governed and who governs them. In other words, the people are the ones who give legitimacy to the government through their participation in the political process, such as voting in elections, expressing their opinions, and holding their leaders accountable. The electorate refers to the body of citizens who are entitled to vote in an election. Therefore, it can be said that popular sovereignty is located in the electorate, as they are the ones who exercise their power to elect their representatives and participate in the decision-making process of their country.

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During the Cold War, West African countries adopted a policy of non-alignment with any power bloc. This meant that they did not align themselves with either the Western or Eastern blocs, but rather maintained a neutral stance in international relations. This was partly due to the desire to remain independent and pursue their own interests, as well as the recognition that aligning with a particular bloc would not necessarily benefit them in the long run. Thus, West African countries pursued a foreign policy that sought to maintain good relations with all nations, regardless of their ideological leanings, in order to safeguard their sovereignty and pursue their own development goals.

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The independence of the judiciary is crucial for the proper functioning of a democratic society. To ensure the independence of the judiciary, the salaries of judges should be fixed and not subject to arbitrary review. This means that judges' salaries should be set at a level that allows them to carry out their duties without fear of financial hardship or the influence of other actors. It is also important that judges are not controlled by the President or any other political actor, and that they are not separated from the executive. These measures will ensure that judges are free to make decisions based on their own interpretation of the law, without fear of retribution or interference from political or other actors.

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The system of government in which the leader exercises absolute power and allows no opposition is called totalitarianism. In this type of government, the ruler or ruling party has complete control over all aspects of people's lives, including political, social, and economic. The totalitarian leader or party uses propaganda, censorship, and force to maintain their power and suppress any opposition. Citizens have limited or no rights and freedoms, and the government's actions are not subject to any kind of checks and balances. Totalitarianism is often associated with oppressive regimes, human rights violations, and the absence of democracy. Examples of countries that have experienced totalitarianism include Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.

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The institution created for checking abuses by government departments is known as the Ombudsman. An Ombudsman is an independent official appointed by the government or parliament to investigate complaints made by citizens against government agencies and officials. The Ombudsman's role is to ensure that public officials act legally, fairly, and reasonably. They investigate complaints of maladministration, such as unreasonable delays, administrative mistakes, bias, or negligence, and can recommend remedial action to the government agency concerned. The Ombudsman is an important institution in promoting transparency and accountability in government, and in protecting citizens' rights.

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According to Karl Marx, those who own and control the means of production in a capitalist society are the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie are the capitalist class who own the means of production, such as factories, machines, and land, and exploit the working class for their labor. Marx believed that this exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie was the source of social and economic inequality in capitalist societies, and that the eventual overthrow of the bourgeoisie by the working class would lead to the establishment of a socialist society.

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The most important function of the upper house in a federation is to ensure equal representation of the component units, such as states or provinces, within the legislative process. In a federation, there are multiple component units with different needs, priorities, and perspectives. The upper house provides a platform for these units to be represented and have their voices heard in the legislative process. By giving each unit an equal number of seats, regardless of their population size, the upper house ensures that smaller units are not overshadowed by larger ones, and that each unit has a fair say in the decision-making process. This helps to promote unity and equity within the federation, as each unit feels represented and valued in the legislative process. While the upper house may have other functions, such as reviewing legislation passed by the lower house or serving as a forum for political debate, its primary function is to ensure equal representation of the component units in the legislative process.

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Popular sovereignty is located in the electorate. Popular sovereignty is the idea that the people are the ultimate source of political power in a democracy. This means that the people have the right to govern themselves and to make decisions about how they are governed. In a democracy, the electorate is the group of citizens who are eligible to vote and who have the power to choose their representatives and leaders through free and fair elections. By exercising their right to vote, the electorate can influence and shape government policies and decisions. The military and police are important institutions in a democracy, but they are not the source of political power. Similarly, opinion leaders may influence public opinion, but they do not hold ultimate political power in a democracy.

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The exclusive list in federalism is a list of powers and responsibilities that are exclusively given to the central or federal government of a country, while the state or regional governments have limited or no authority in those areas. The exclusive list typically includes areas of national importance, such as defence, foreign relations, and currency. However, transportation is not typically included in the exclusive list in federalism. Instead, transportation is usually considered a concurrent power, meaning that both the federal and state governments have some authority in this area. For example, the federal government may be responsible for maintaining major highways and airports, while state governments may be responsible for local roads and public transportation. In summary, the exclusive list in federalism typically includes powers related to defence, foreign relations, and currency, but not transportation, which is usually a concurrent power shared between the federal and state governments.

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The constitutional reforms in West Africa after the Second World War were geared towards making the colonies independent states. Prior to World War II, most West African colonies were under direct colonial rule, with limited political representation or participation. After the war, there was growing pressure for independence and self-determination, both within the colonies and from international actors. To meet this demand, constitutional reforms were introduced in many West African colonies to grant greater political participation and representation to the people, and to pave the way for eventual independence. This included the introduction of representative government, the establishment of political parties, and the gradual transfer of power from colonial authorities to locally elected officials. While the process of decolonization was not always smooth or peaceful, and there were often tensions and conflicts between colonial powers and nationalist movements, the constitutional reforms paved the way for the eventual emergence of independent states in West Africa. In summary, the constitutional reforms in West Africa after the Second World War were geared towards making the colonies independent states by granting greater political participation and representation to the people and transferring power from colonial authorities to locally elected officials.

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The rights of individuals are usually enshrined in the constitutions of countries. A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents that govern the powers and functions of a government, as well as the rights and duties of citizens. It lays out the framework for how a country is to be governed and often includes a Bill of Rights, which outlines the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals, such as the right to life, liberty, and equality before the law. Constitutions serve as the supreme law of the land and provide a foundation for a country's legal system. While laws, courts, and journals can help to interpret and enforce constitutional rights, it is the constitution itself that provides the framework for protecting the rights of individuals.

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One of the reasons for military takeovers in West Africa is corruption among political leaders. Corruption refers to the abuse of power for personal gain or the misuse of public resources for private purposes. When political leaders engage in corruption, it can lead to economic instability, inequality, and public unrest. In some cases, the military may stage a coup d'état or overthrow the government in order to restore law and order and to combat corruption among political leaders. The military may also see themselves as a more trustworthy and efficient alternative to civilian politicians who are perceived as corrupt or ineffective. However, military takeovers often result in a suspension of democratic processes, a lack of civil liberties, and human rights abuses. As such, while corruption among political leaders may be a reason for military takeover in West Africa, it is important to find other solutions to address corruption and promote good governance, such as strengthening democratic institutions and holding political leaders accountable for their actions.

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Government as a subject refers to the study of the institutions and processes by which a society is ruled, including the exercise of power and authority, the organization and function of the state, and the relationship between citizens, the government, and other institutions in society. It encompasses a broad range of topics, including political theory, public policy, international relations, and comparative government. The focus is on understanding the structures, functions, and processes of government, as well as the political, social, and economic factors that shape them.

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Enfranchisement right refers to the right of individuals to vote and be voted for in elections. It is the legal right to participate in the political process of a country, either by casting a vote in an election or by running for political office. This right is often considered a fundamental aspect of democracy, as it allows citizens to have a say in the government that represents them.

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A yes or no vote cast by an electorate to decide an important issue in an area is known as a plebiscite. A plebiscite is a direct vote by the people of a region or country on an important issue or question. It is also sometimes referred to as a referendum. The purpose of a plebiscite is to seek the opinion of the people on a specific matter, such as changes to the constitution or major policy decisions. The vote is usually a simple yes or no, with the majority vote determining the outcome. Plebiscites are often used to resolve important political issues or to determine the will of the people on a particular matter. They can be initiated by the government or by citizen groups, and are an important tool for democratic decision-making.

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The head of the Commonwealth of Nations is the British Monarch. The Commonwealth of Nations is an intergovernmental organization made up of 54 member states, mostly former territories of the British Empire. The organization was created to promote economic, political, and cultural cooperation among its members. The British Monarch serves as the ceremonial head of the Commonwealth, representing the organization at international events and performing other symbolic roles. The position of head of the Commonwealth is a symbolic and non-political role, and it does not confer any real authority or power over the member states. The current head of the Commonwealth is Queen Elizabeth II.

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A government is legitimate if it has the mandate of the people to rule. This means that the government is elected through a free and fair electoral process, where the citizens are given the opportunity to vote for their preferred candidates. When a government is elected in this manner, it has the mandate of the people to govern and make decisions on their behalf. The legitimacy of a government is based on the consent of the governed and the adherence to the rule of law. A legitimate government is therefore recognized by its citizens and other states as being the rightful authority to govern the country.

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A sovereign power over a number of people in a specific geographical area is called a state. A state is a political entity that exercises control over a defined territory, with a government that has the power to make and enforce laws, maintain order and security, and provide public services. A state can be either independent or part of a larger political entity, such as a federation or a confederation. The concept of the state is fundamental to political science and is the basis for the international system of nation-states that exists today.

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A situation where all the citizens meet in an open place to govern the state is called direct democracy. In a direct democracy, all citizens have an equal say and are directly involved in making decisions and policies that affect their lives. This means that they gather in a public place, such as a town hall or square, to discuss and vote on issues. Direct democracy is often associated with small communities or city-states, where it is practical for all citizens to participate directly in the decision-making process. Direct democracy is different from representative democracy, where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Direct democracy is rare in modern times but has been used in some countries, such as Switzerland, for certain types of decisions.

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The absence of government in a state is referred to as anarchy. Anarchy is a situation where there is no recognized government or authority in control of a particular territory or population. In an anarchic state, there is no established legal or political order, and individuals or groups are left to their own devices to make decisions and exercise power. Anarchy is often associated with chaos, violence, and lawlessness, as individuals or groups may use force or coercion to advance their interests. Anarchy can arise for various reasons, including the collapse of a government, civil war, or revolution. While anarchy may be temporary, it can have serious consequences for the stability and security of a state and its people.

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A basic component of political culture is cognitive orientation. Political culture refers to the attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors that shape the political life of a society. Cognitive orientation refers to the way people think about politics and how they understand and interpret political events and institutions. It includes their understanding of political concepts and ideas, such as democracy, freedom, and justice, and their perception of the role of government in society. Cognitive orientation is important because it shapes how people engage in politics and how they participate in the political process. For example, people with a strong orientation towards democracy may be more likely to participate in elections, attend political rallies, or engage in political discussions, while those with a weaker orientation may be less likely to do so.

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The term "winner-takes-all" is associated with the first-past-the-post system. In this system, the candidate who receives the most votes in an election wins the seat, regardless of whether they have a majority of the votes. This means that the winning candidate "takes all" the representation for that particular electoral district or constituency. The other candidates or parties receive no representation, even if they received a significant proportion of the votes. This system is used in many countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. It is often criticized for giving disproportionate representation to the largest parties and failing to reflect the diversity of views and opinions among the electorate.

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A system of government in which the political power is vested in the elected representatives is known as democracy. In a democracy, citizens participate in the decision-making process through their elected representatives. This means that the government is accountable to the people and the people have the power to elect their leaders. In a democratic system, all individuals have equal rights and the rule of law is upheld. The key feature of democracy is that the government is formed by the people, for the people and accountable to the people.

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The process by which voters may remove a public officer before the end of his term of office is called "recall". This means that voters can petition to have an elected official removed from their position before their term is up. The recall process usually involves collecting a certain number of signatures on a petition to trigger a special election, in which voters can decide whether to remove the official from office or allow them to continue serving their term. The recall process is a way for voters to hold elected officials accountable and ensure that they are representing the interests of their constituents.

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In a legislature, a filibuster is a member who prevents the passage of a bill by making long speeches. The intent of a filibuster is to delay or prevent the passage of a bill by speaking for as long as possible, often using delaying tactics or introducing irrelevant topics to consume time. The goal of a filibuster is to stall or block legislation that the filibustering member disagrees with, or to force a compromise on a particular issue. The use of filibusters varies widely between different parliamentary systems and countries.

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The order of mandamus is a form of order issued by a superior court to a lower court, tribunal, public authority or corporation, or to an individual directing them to perform a particular function or duty that they are obligated to perform. This order is issued when there is a failure to perform a legal duty or to correct an abuse of discretion. In summary, the order of mandamus is a judicial command or writ issued by a court of competent jurisdiction ordering an individual or a public authority to carry out a particular action.

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The power of the central government to dissolve subordinate units at will is a feature of a unitary system of government. In a unitary system, the central government holds all the power and can create or abolish any lower levels of government as it sees fit. This is in contrast to a federal system, where power is shared between the central government and regional governments, and the central government does not have the power to dissolve the regional governments at will.

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In the legislature, the term guillotine refers to the allocation of time to a bill. When a bill is introduced in the legislature, it must go through several stages of debate and scrutiny before it can be passed into law. However, there is usually a time limit for these stages, and if the debate goes on for too long, the bill may not be passed before the end of the session. This is where the guillotine comes in. The guillotine is a procedure used by the legislature to limit the amount of time for debate on a bill. Once the guillotine is set, any remaining stages of the bill must be completed within the allocated time or the debate is ended, and the bill is either passed or rejected without further debate. The guillotine is often used to expedite the passage of controversial or time-sensitive bills and is a common practice in parliamentary democracies around the world.

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A representative of one country in another within the Commonwealth of Nations is called a High Commissioner. A High Commissioner is a diplomatic representative who is appointed by one Commonwealth country to live and work in another. Their role is similar to that of an ambassador, but they are referred to as "High Commissioner" because ambassadors are only exchanged between countries that have fully recognized each other's sovereignty, while Commonwealth countries have a shared history and are considered equal partners. High Commissioners represent their country's interests and promote diplomatic relations with the host country.

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The correct answer is: "were representing the Queen of England". At independence, the Governor-General in British West African countries remained as the representative of the British Crown until each country could establish its own republican or monarchical system. They had limited powers and acted on behalf of the British government in each country. They had no executive or legislative powers and were only responsible for ceremonial duties and the signing of official documents.

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The use of veto power in the United Nations Organization (UNO) is only exercised by the Security Council. The Security Council is one of the main bodies of the UNO and is responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It consists of 15 members, including 5 permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) who have the power to veto any substantive resolution. This means that if any one of the five permanent members votes against a resolution, it cannot be passed, even if all the other members vote in favor of it. The use of veto power has been a controversial issue, as it can often lead to a deadlock in decision-making and prevent action on important issues.

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Sovereignty refers to the ultimate authority and power of a state to govern itself without external interference. It is a key principle of international law and politics. However, sovereignty does not imply the supremacy of political parties. Political parties are groups of individuals who come together to contest elections and hold power in government. While they play an important role in the political process, they are not the same as the state itself. The state is the highest authority in a country, with unlimited powers to make and enforce laws, and political parties are subject to the authority of the state. In summary, sovereignty implies the highest authority in a state, political independence, and unlimited powers of a state to make and enforce laws. It does not imply the supremacy of political parties, which are subject to the authority of the state.

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A feature of federalism is a written constitution. In a federal system of government, power is divided between a central government and smaller, regional governments. A written constitution is necessary to establish and define the powers and responsibilities of each level of government, as well as the relationship between them. The constitution serves as the supreme law of the land, setting out the rules and principles by which the government operates, including the separation of powers, the protection of individual rights and freedoms, and the mechanisms for resolving disputes between different levels of government. A written constitution provides a clear framework for the distribution of powers and responsibilities among the different levels of government, ensuring that each level has the authority to carry out its designated functions without interference from the other. This helps to maintain a balance of power between the central government and regional governments, and protects against the concentration of power in any one entity. In summary, a written constitution is a key feature of federalism, as it establishes and defines the powers and responsibilities of each level of government, and serves as the supreme law of the land, ensuring a balance of power and protecting individual rights and freedoms.

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The most important function of the Upper House in a federation is to ensure equal representation of the component units. In a federation, power is divided between a central government and individual states or regions. The Upper House, also known as the Senate or House of Lords, represents the states or regions in the federal legislature. Its primary function is to provide a check on the power of the lower house and to ensure that the component units of the federation are represented fairly and equally. Each state or region is typically given the same number of representatives in the Upper House, regardless of its population size, to prevent more populous states from dominating the legislative process. While the Upper House may have other functions, such as serving as a revising chamber for legislation, its role in ensuring equal representation of the component units is considered its most important function in a federation.

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A major advantage of a one-party system is that it promotes unity. In a one-party system, there is only one political party that is allowed to participate in the government. This means that all members of the party share the same ideology and goals, which can promote unity among the population. Without multiple political parties, there is less room for disagreement and conflict within the government, which can lead to a more efficient decision-making process. In addition, a one-party system can also help to prevent political gridlock and promote stability. However, critics of one-party systems argue that they can lead to a lack of political freedom, as there is no real opposition to challenge the ruling party. This can result in a lack of accountability and potentially lead to corruption and abuse of power.

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(a) Definition of a public corporation

A public corporation is a state-owned enterprise established by an Act of Parliament or a decree, with a legal personality of its own, to provide essential goods and services to the public and/or to carry out commercial activities on behalf of the government. Examples in Nigeria include the Nigerian Ports Authority and the Power Holding Company. It is managed by a board appointed by the government but enjoys some measure of autonomy in its day-to-day operations.

(b) Reasons for setting up public corporations

1. To provide essential services: Some services (water, electricity, ports, railways) are so vital that they cannot be left entirely to private profit-seekers.
2. To avoid private monopoly and exploitation: Government ownership prevents private individuals from monopolising essential services and overcharging the public.
3. To provide services requiring huge capital: Some ventures need capital too large for private investors to raise.
4. To create employment: Public corporations provide jobs for many citizens.
5. To promote even development: Government can site corporations in less-developed areas to spread development, which private investors might avoid.

Other reasons include the desire to control strategic sectors of the economy and to generate revenue for the state.

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The 1954 Lyttleton Constitution introduced several important political changes into the Nigerian political system. Six of them are highlighted below.

1. Introduction of a true federal system: Nigeria formally became a federation of three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern) with a clear division of powers between the centre and the regions.
2. Lagos made a federal territory: Lagos was separated from the Western Region and made the federal capital territory.
3. Regional autonomy and premiers: Each region was given greater autonomy, and the post of Regional Premier was created to head each regional government.
4. Distribution of legislative powers: Exclusive, concurrent and residual legislative lists were introduced to share powers between the federal and regional governments.
5. Regionalisation of the public/civil service and judiciary: The civil service and certain services were regionalised so that regions could run their own.
6. Provision for regional self-government: Regions were allowed to become self-governing when ready, which the East and West achieved in 1957 and the North in 1959.

It also abolished the office of the central Governor's control over regional executive matters and strengthened the powers of the regions.

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(a) Distinction between a Secretary of State for the Colonies and a Governor-General

(b) Functions of the Governor-General in British West Africa shortly after independence

1. Ceremonial Head of State: He represented the Queen and performed ceremonial and formal duties on her behalf.
2. Appointment of the Prime Minister: He formally appointed the leader of the majority party in Parliament as Prime Minister.
3. Assent to bills: He gave the royal assent that turned bills passed by Parliament into law.
4. Summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament: He performed these functions on the advice of the Prime Minister.
5. Appointment of ministers and other officials: He formally appointed ministers, judges and senior officers on the advice of the Prime Minister.

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(a) Meaning of an absolute majority system

The absolute majority system is an electoral system in which a candidate must secure more than half of the total votes cast (that is, at least 50 percent plus one vote) in order to be declared the winner, rather than merely obtaining more votes than any other single candidate. Where no candidate obtains such an absolute majority in the first ballot, a second ballot (run-off) is usually held between the two leading candidates, or votes are redistributed through preferential voting, until one candidate emerges with an absolute majority. It is designed to ensure that the winner enjoys the support of the majority of the voters.

(b) Five disadvantages of the system

1. It is expensive: The conduct of a second ballot or run-off election involves additional cost in money, materials and manpower for the electoral body.
2. It is time consuming and delays results: Where a second ballot is required, the declaration of the final winner is delayed, and governance may suffer during the interval.
3. Possible voter apathy and fatigue: Voters may become tired and reluctant to turn out again for a second round of voting, leading to low turnout.
4. It can lead to unhealthy alliances and horse-trading: Between the two ballots, candidates may enter into opportunistic and unprincipled deals with eliminated candidates merely to secure votes.
5. It may generate tension and disputes: The prolonged process and the run-off can heighten political tension, rivalry and the risk of violence.
6. It is complicated to administer: Especially where preferential or transferable voting is used, the counting and transfer of votes can be complex and confusing to ordinary voters.
7. It may still not reflect first preferences fairly: A candidate who led in the first ballot may lose in the run-off, which some voters view as unfair.

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The National Party of Nigeria (NPN), led by President Shehu Shagari, governed at the centre during the Second Republic (1979-1983) and recorded the following achievements.

1. Maintenance of democratic civilian rule: It sustained the presidential system of government after thirteen years of military rule, keeping the democratic experiment alive.
2. The Green Revolution programme: It launched agricultural schemes aimed at boosting food production and achieving self-sufficiency in food.
3. Housing programme: It embarked on a low-cost housing scheme to provide affordable homes for Nigerians across the country.
4. Expansion of infrastructure: It embarked on the construction of roads, and continued work on projects such as the Ajaokuta Steel Complex and other industries.
5. Promotion of national unity: Through its policy of spreading appointments and projects across the country, it fostered a sense of belonging among the various groups (the "federal character" principle).
6. Active foreign policy: It pursued an Africa-centred foreign policy and contributed to regional cooperation through ECOWAS and support for liberation movements.

It also won re-election in 1983, and promoted universal primary education and expanded the frontiers of tertiary education.

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(a) Meaning of foreign policy

Foreign policy is the set of principles, objectives and strategies that guide a country's relations and dealings with other countries and international organisations, in order to protect and promote its national interest in the international community.

(b) Main objectives of Nigerian foreign policy

1. Protection of national interest, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Nigeria.
2. Africa as the centrepiece of foreign policy: Commitment to the liberation, unity and development of the African continent.
3. Promotion of world peace and international cooperation through bodies such as the United Nations, the African Union and ECOWAS.
4. Non-alignment: Refusal to align permanently with any power bloc, while maintaining friendly relations with all nations.
5. Respect for the sovereign equality of all states and non-interference in their internal affairs.
6. Promotion of economic and technical cooperation to attract investment and trade for national development.
7. Peaceful settlement of international disputes.
8. Protection and welfare of Nigerian citizens abroad.

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(a) Composition of the General Assembly of the UNO

The General Assembly is composed of all member states of the United Nations Organisation. Each member state may send up to five representatives to the Assembly. However, irrespective of the number of representatives sent, each member state has only one vote.

(b) Functions of the General Assembly

(i) It deliberates on and makes recommendations on matters affecting international peace and security.

(ii) It discusses, approves and controls the annual budget of the UNO.

(iii) It admits new members into the UNO and may suspend or expel member states on the recommendation of the Security Council.

(iv) It elects non-permanent members of the Security Council and, together with the Security Council, appoints the Secretary-General and elects judges of the International Court of Justice.

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(a) Definition of feudalism

Feudalism was a social, political and economic system that prevailed in medieval Europe (and in similar forms elsewhere) in which land was the basis of power and social relations. Under it, the king owned all the land and granted large estates (fiefs) to nobles or lords in return for their loyalty and military service. The lords in turn allotted portions of land to peasants or serfs, who worked the land and rendered services and dues to the lord in exchange for protection and the right to farm. Society was rigidly divided into fixed classes (the king, the nobility, the clergy and the serfs) with the serfs at the bottom, tied to the land and owing obligations to their overlords.

(b) Five demerits of feudalism

1. Exploitation and oppression of the serfs: The peasants were made to work for the lords under harsh conditions, paying heavy dues and services while receiving little in return.
2. Rigid class stratification with no social mobility: Society was divided into fixed classes and a person born a serf remained a serf; there was little or no opportunity to rise.
3. Denial of freedom and rights: The serfs were tied to the land and to their lords, could not move about freely and were treated almost like property, lacking basic liberties.
4. Concentration of power and wealth in a few: Land, wealth and political power were held by the king and a small class of nobles, breeding gross inequality.
5. It bred constant conflict and instability: Rivalry among the lords and their private armies led to frequent wars and disorder, weakening central authority.
6. It retarded economic and technological progress: The self-sufficient manorial economy discouraged trade, industry, invention and the growth of towns.

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(a) Definition of opinion poll

An opinion poll is a method of sampling and measuring the views, feelings and attitudes of a section of the public on a particular issue, candidate or policy, by questioning a carefully selected representative sample of the population and using their responses to estimate what the whole population thinks. It is a scientific tool for gauging public opinion, commonly used before elections to predict likely outcomes or to assess the popularity of a government or its programmes.

(b) Five factors that make the conduct of public opinion unreliable in West Africa

1. High level of illiteracy: A large proportion of the population cannot read or understand the questions, so their responses are often uninformed or wrongly recorded, distorting the results.
2. Poor communication and transport network: Many rural and remote communities are inaccessible, so pollsters cannot reach a truly representative sample of the population.
3. Ethnic, religious and sectional sentiments: Responses are frequently coloured by tribe, religion and sectional loyalty rather than by genuine opinion on the issue, biasing the outcome.
4. Fear and suspicion: Many people, out of fear of victimisation by government or others, give false or guarded answers or refuse to disclose their true feelings.
5. Inadequate funds and trained personnel: Poll organisations often lack sufficient money and skilled, honest interviewers to design and conduct polls properly, leading to sampling and processing errors.
6. Manipulation and bias of the pollsters or sponsors: Polls are sometimes sponsored and rigged by interested parties to produce predetermined results.
7. Unstable and changing opinions: Public opinion is fluid and people frequently change their minds, so a poll taken at one time may not hold at another.
8. Lack of accurate population data: The absence of reliable census figures makes it difficult to draw a properly representative sample.

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The Rule of Law, as expounded by A. V. Dicey, means the supremacy of the law, equality before the law, and the guarantee of the fundamental rights and liberties of the citizen. A government violates this principle in the following ways:

1. Detention of persons without trial: When the government arrests and detains citizens indefinitely without charging them before a court of law, it breaches the principle that no one should be punished except for a proven breach of the law.
2. Making of retroactive (ex post facto) laws: When the government enacts laws that punish acts which were not offences at the time they were committed, it violates the fair operation of the law.
3. Denial of fair hearing: When persons are tried and condemned without being given the opportunity to defend themselves, or are made judges in their own cause, the rule of law is undermined.
4. Discrimination and inequality before the law: When the government treats some citizens as being above the law (for example, granting immunity to officials for crimes) or applies the law unequally on the basis of tribe, religion or status, it violates equality before the law.
5. Suppression of fundamental human rights: When the government muzzles the press, bans free speech, association and movement, and represses opposition, it denies the liberties the rule of law protects.
6. Interference with the independence of the judiciary: When the executive dictates to the courts, removes judges arbitrarily, or refuses to obey court orders and judgments, the rule of law is destroyed.
7. Rule by arbitrary decrees and use of force: When government acts by naked force, ouster clauses and arbitrary decrees rather than by due process, it sets itself above the law.
8. Confiscation of property without due process: When the government seizes citizens' property without lawful authority or compensation, it breaches the rule of law.

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In pre-colonial West Africa, traditional rulers performed a wide range of roles in the governance of their societies. Six of these roles are outlined below.

1. Political/administrative head: The ruler was the head of the community and directed its administration with the aid of a council of chiefs and elders.
2. Chief judge: He settled disputes, interpreted and enforced customary law, and punished offenders as the highest judicial authority.
3. Religious/spiritual leader: As a sacred figure, he served as the intermediary between the people and the gods or ancestors and presided over religious festivals and rituals.
4. Military commander: He organised and commanded the community's warriors to defend the people and, where necessary, to expand the territory.
5. Custodian of land and economic resources: He held communal land in trust, allocated farmland, and controlled markets, tolls and tributes.
6. Law-maker and custodian of customs: Working with his council, he made rules for the community and preserved its customs, values and traditions.

He also served as the symbol of unity and the representative of his people in relations with neighbouring communities.

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(a) Composition of the Executive Council of the 1922 Clifford Constitution

The Executive Council under the Clifford Constitution was purely an advisory and official body dominated by the British. It was composed as follows.

1. The Governor, who presided over the council.
2. Senior colonial officials, namely the Chief Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Financial Secretary and other heads of government departments (all Europeans).
3. It contained no African members, and it merely advised the Governor, who was not bound to accept its advice.

(b) Significance of the Clifford Constitution to Nigeria

1. Introduction of the elective principle: It allowed, for the first time, the election of Africans into the Legislative Council.
2. Emergence of political parties: It led to the formation of parties such as Herbert Macaulay's Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923.
3. Growth of nationalism and political awareness: Electioneering stimulated political consciousness and press activity.
4. Expansion of the Legislative Council: It enlarged the council and gave it responsibility for law-making for the Colony and Southern Provinces.
5. Foundation for future constitutional development: It set the stage for later constitutions (Richards, Macpherson, Lyttleton) that widened African participation.