WAEC SSCE - Government - 1990

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An election which is conducted to fill a vacant seat in a legislature is called a bye-election. This type of election is also referred to as a special election or a by-election. It is usually held when there is a vacancy in an elected office, such as a legislative seat, due to death, resignation, or disqualification of the incumbent. The bye-election is held to fill the vacancy and ensure that the representation of the people in that office is maintained. Unlike a general election which involves the election of all representatives, a bye-election is limited to a specific office or constituency.

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Northern Nigeria became internally self-governed in 1959. This means that the region was granted the power to govern its own affairs and make decisions on issues such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure without interference from the British colonial government. The move towards self-government was part of a larger push for decolonization across Africa, as many countries sought independence from their colonial rulers. The path to self-government in Northern Nigeria was not without its challenges, including political and social tensions among different ethnic groups and the struggle to establish a functional democratic system. However, the region was ultimately successful in achieving independence in 1960, along with the rest of Nigeria, and continued to make strides towards economic and political development in the following years.

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When a constitution is difficult to amend, it is said to be "rigid." A rigid constitution is one that cannot be easily changed or amended. In a rigid constitution, there are usually strict procedures and requirements that must be met before any changes can be made. The purpose of a rigid constitution is to ensure that fundamental principles and values are preserved over time and not subject to the whims of temporary majorities or passing fads. It is intended to provide stability and continuity in the legal framework of a country. In contrast, a "flexible" constitution is one that can be easily amended or changed. This allows for more flexibility and adaptability to changing circumstances but can also lead to instability and uncertainty in the legal system. Overall, the choice between a rigid or flexible constitution is a balance between the need for stability and continuity on one hand, and flexibility and adaptability on the other. It depends on the particular needs and circumstances of each country.

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The political authority that has the power to control and govern a specific geographical area is called a state. A state typically has its own government, laws, and institutions that are responsible for maintaining order and providing public services within that territory. A state is often recognized by other states and international organizations as a sovereign entity with the right to govern its own affairs without interference from external sources. Examples of states include the United States, Russia, and China.

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Nigeria obtained her independence on a platter of gold because the British government willingly granted it without any war or major resistance from Nigerian nationalists. Nigeria's independence was a result of a series of negotiations and constitutional conferences between Nigerian leaders and the British government. Although there were agitations and protests by various Nigerian nationalist groups, the British government realized that the cost of maintaining a colonial administration was becoming too high, and it was in their interest to grant independence to Nigeria peacefully. Therefore, Nigeria's independence was achieved through diplomacy and negotiations rather than through war or coercion.

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The political neutrality of civil servants implies that they are not allowed to be involved in partisan politics. Civil servants are expected to serve the government of the day, regardless of which political party is in power. Political neutrality means that civil servants must not take sides or express political views publicly. They are not allowed to join political parties or participate in partisan political activities, such as campaigning or fundraising for a particular party or candidate. By being politically neutral, civil servants can maintain their impartiality and serve the government and the people in a fair and non-partisan manner.

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The introduction of Indirect Rule by the British colonial government in Eastern Nigeria allowed them to rule through local leaders known as "warrant chiefs" who were selected and given authority by the colonial government. The warrant chiefs, who were often seen as corrupt and abusive, imposed heavy taxes on the people and used their power to enrich themselves. This led to widespread dissatisfaction among the people, particularly the women, who were often the most affected by the economic hardship caused by the taxes. In 1929, the women of Aba, a major trading center in Eastern Nigeria, organized a massive protest against the warrant chiefs and their taxes. The Aba Women's Riots, as they came to be known, were a series of protests that began in November 1929 and lasted for several weeks. Thousands of women from across the region came together to demand the removal of the warrant chiefs and an end to the oppressive taxation system. The women used a range of tactics, including sit-ins, demonstrations, and the destruction of property belonging to the warrant chiefs. Although the British authorities initially tried to suppress the protests, they eventually agreed to meet with the women and address their grievances. The riots were a pivotal moment in the history of Nigeria, as they marked one of the first major challenges to British colonial rule in the country. They also demonstrated the power of grassroots organizing and collective action in the face of oppression.

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The principle of checks and balances is necessary in government to prevent any one branch or organ of government from becoming too powerful and potentially abusive. It ensures that each branch of government has a separate and distinct role to play, with checks on the power of the other branches. For example, the executive branch enforces the law, but the legislative branch makes the law, and the judiciary interprets the law. This system prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful and ensures that no one person or group has unchecked authority. Checks and balances also ensure that the government remains accountable to the people by preventing any one branch from dominating the others. This helps to prevent government from becoming dictatorial and abusing its power. Therefore, the correct option is "prevents government from becoming dictatorial."

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Nigeria broke diplomatic relations with Israel because of that country's occupation of Arab territories, including Egypt. This decision was made by the Nigerian government in 1973 as a show of solidarity with Arab nations and their opposition to Israel's military occupation of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula, and Golan Heights.

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Public opinion is very important because it lets the government know what the people want. Public opinion represents the views, beliefs, and sentiments of the general public on various issues. When people express their opinions, the government can understand what is important to the citizens and take appropriate actions to address their needs and concerns. Public opinion is crucial in a democratic system, as it ensures that the government is accountable to the people it serves. It allows the government to make informed decisions that are in the best interest of the people, rather than just a select few.

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A bill that applies to the whole population and is intended to promote the general welfare is called a public bill. In a democratic system of government, bills are introduced in the legislative branch of government and can either be public or private. A public bill is one that affects the general public and is intended to promote the public good, while a private bill is one that affects only specific individuals or groups. Public bills can cover a wide range of issues, such as healthcare, education, infrastructure development, and social welfare programs. They are introduced by members of the legislative branch and must pass through several stages before becoming law. This process usually involves debate and voting, and may also involve public hearings and consultations. Once a public bill is passed by the legislative branch, it must be signed into law by the executive branch before it can take effect. Public bills are an important tool for governments to promote the general welfare of their citizens and to address the needs of society as a whole.

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The system of government that requires the control of everything and allows no opposition is called Totalitarianism. In this form of government, the state exercises complete control over all aspects of society, including political, social, and economic affairs. Totalitarian regimes typically employ strict censorship, propaganda, and repression to maintain their grip on power and suppress any dissent or opposition. Under a totalitarian system, the government often uses force to ensure obedience and conformity to its policies and ideologies. This can result in the violation of individual rights and freedoms, as well as the suppression of any groups or individuals that are deemed to be a threat to the ruling regime. Totalitarianism has been associated with some of the most oppressive regimes in history, such as Nazi Germany and Stalinist Russia. While some countries today may exhibit characteristics of a totalitarian system, most modern societies reject this form of government and instead promote democratic values such as freedom of speech, individual rights, and the rule of law.

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In the process of governing, "input" refers to the demands made by individuals and groups for action by the authorities. These demands can take various forms, such as petitions, protests, or lobbying efforts. Input represents the interests and needs of the public and serves as a basis for the decision-making process of the authorities. The input is then transformed into official policies and regulations, which are enforced by public officials.

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Power can be defined as the capacity to compel or influence others to do what they would otherwise not do. It refers to the ability of an individual, group or organization to exert control or influence over the thoughts, emotions, and behavior of others. It may be exerted through various means such as persuasion, coercion, manipulation, or force. Power can be seen in various aspects of society, including politics, business, and personal relationships. Those who possess power have the ability to make decisions, shape opinions, and control resources, often to the disadvantage of those without power.

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In the feudal system, the lowest class of people were the serfs. Serfs were essentially peasants who worked the land and were tied to the land they worked on. They were obligated to provide their lord with a portion of their crops or other goods produced, and they were often subject to various forms of labor and taxation. Serfs had very little power or social mobility, and they were essentially bound to their lord's estate for life.

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In the absence of traditional rulers in Igbo communities, the British colonial administration appointed Warrant Chiefs to administer local affairs. The Igbo people of Nigeria have a long history of self-governance through democratic processes and village councils. However, the British colonial administration, in their effort to exert control over the people, abolished these democratic structures and replaced them with a centralized system of indirect rule. To administer local affairs, the British colonial administration appointed Warrant Chiefs who were seen as collaborators with the colonial regime. The Warrant Chiefs were selected from among the educated elite in the communities and were given authority to collect taxes, settle disputes and maintain law and order. The imposition of Warrant Chiefs was highly unpopular among the Igbo people, who saw them as puppets of the colonial regime. The system of Warrant Chiefs was eventually abolished in the 1930s, after a series of protests and uprisings by the Igbo people.

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Rates in Nigeria are generally collected by the Local Government Councils. The Local Government Councils are responsible for providing basic services such as waste management, maintenance of public infrastructure, and other local services to the citizens. The funds for these services are generated through various means, including the collection of rates. The Local Government Councils are authorized to collect rates from property owners within their jurisdiction. These rates are charged as a percentage of the assessed value of the property and are used to fund the various services provided by the council. Although other government agencies, such as the Department of Inland Revenue, State Ministry of Finance, Emirate of traditional Council, and State Governors, may also be involved in revenue collection, rates are generally collected by the Local Government Councils.

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A totalitarian government is a government that aspires to control every aspect of a citizen's life. In this type of government, the ruling authority seeks to have total control over every aspect of society, including the economy, politics, culture, and even people's personal lives. Totalitarian governments often use methods such as propaganda, censorship, surveillance, and repression to maintain their power and control over society. The individual is subordinated to the state, and the government exercises almost unlimited power over its citizens.

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The institution that preserves civil liberty in Nigeria is the Law Courts. The Law Courts are responsible for interpreting and applying the law, and they serve as the last resort for citizens seeking redress when their civil liberties have been violated. The courts are independent of the executive and legislative branches of government, and their decisions are binding on all parties. They play a crucial role in upholding the rule of law and protecting the fundamental rights and freedoms of Nigerian citizens.

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The 1979 Constitution of Nigeria was the supreme law governing Nigeria from 1979 to 1983. The constitution provided for a presidential system of government, with a head of state who is also the head of government. It also introduced the participation of women in politics by requiring that a minimum of 10% of elected officials at all levels of government be women. Additionally, the constitution emphasized the importance of fundamental human rights, such as freedom of speech and the right to a fair trial, and made all men equal before the law, regardless of their social status or background. However, the constitution did not provide for a House of Chiefs.

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The progressive nature of Nigeria's foreign policy between 1979 is attributed to various factors, including the influence of radical intellectuals, military officers who were acting in foreign affairs before coming into the government, Nigeria's oil money, and public opinion. However, the option that is not attributed to the progressive nature of Nigeria's foreign policy between 1979 is the influence of the American government. Therefore, the correct option is "the influence of the American government."

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The Nigeria National Democratic Party (NNDP) was founded by Herbert Macaulay in Lagos in 1923. Macaulay, a Nigerian nationalist and politician, was one of the most prominent figures in the movement for Nigerian independence. He founded the NNDP as a political party to represent the interests of Nigerians and to push for greater autonomy and self-rule for the country. The NNDP played an important role in Nigerian politics in the 1920s and 1930s and was one of the earliest political parties in the country.

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Nigeria became a federation under the 1954 Constitution because the constitution provided for a division of functions between the centre and the component units. The 1954 Constitution, which replaced the Richards Constitution of 1946, established a federal system of government in Nigeria, whereby there was a clear separation of powers and responsibilities between the central government and the regional governments. The regions were given considerable autonomy and were responsible for a range of matters such as education, health, and agriculture, while the central government had responsibility for areas such as defence, foreign affairs, and currency. This system of government was designed to give each region a measure of control over its own affairs and to ensure that power was not concentrated in the hands of the central government.

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The recognition of individuals' rights and the Industrial Revolution contributed to the development of capitalism. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, brought about significant changes in the production of goods, leading to increased productivity and economic growth. At the same time, the recognition of individual rights, such as property rights and the right to free trade, enabled individuals to engage in economic activities with fewer restrictions. These factors, among others, contributed to the development of capitalism, which is an economic system based on private ownership and control of the means of production and the creation of goods and services for profit.

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The popular principle of colonial administration in British West Africa was indirect rule. Indirect rule is a system of governance where the colonial power rules through existing indigenous authorities or rulers. In the case of British West Africa, the British used traditional rulers and local institutions to implement their policies and maintain control. This system allowed the British to govern the colonies with minimal direct intervention, while still maintaining control and preserving traditional structures of authority. The British believed that indirect rule was cheaper and more efficient than direct rule, and also helped to maintain social stability.

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Capitalism is an economic system in which private individuals or companies own and control the means of production and operate them for profit. This means that businesses and industries are privately owned, and individuals are free to produce and sell goods and services in a competitive market. Under capitalism, there is generally a focus on individualism, self-interest, and the pursuit of profit. This can lead to innovation, economic growth, and increased prosperity, but it can also lead to inequality and exploitation if left unchecked. The government's role in a capitalist system is generally limited to providing a legal framework for economic activity, protecting property rights, and enforcing contracts. There is no central planning or control of the economy by the state, and private property rights are upheld and protected. Therefore, the correct option is "private persons are permitted to undertake enterprises."

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The correct option is: "Withdrawal of military bases from African". During the nationalist movement in Nigeria, one of the major demands was the promotion of Africans to senior service positions. This was aimed at ensuring that Africans had greater representation and control in the colonial administration. Another demand was the increase of African representation in the legislative assemblies, as well as the improvement of conditions of service and salaries for Africans who worked in the colonial administration. Additionally, the reduction of the dictatorial powers of colonial officers was another demand of the nationalist movement in Nigeria. However, the withdrawal of military bases from Africa was not a demand of the nationalist movement in Nigeria. This is because the presence of military bases was not seen as a major issue during the struggle for independence.

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The main function of the judiciary is to interpret the laws of the land. This means that the judiciary is responsible for ensuring that the laws are properly understood and applied in cases brought before them. The judiciary's interpretation of the law is based on legal principles and precedents established over time, as well as the specific facts of the case at hand. In addition to interpreting the law, the judiciary also has the responsibility of applying the law to specific cases and ensuring that justice is served. This includes protecting the rights and interests of all individuals, including accused persons, and ensuring that the legal process is fair and impartial. While the judiciary does not enact laws, its interpretation and application of the law can have a significant impact on how laws are understood and implemented. Additionally, the judiciary serves as a check on the power of the executive branch by ensuring that its actions are legal and constitutional.

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In a democracy, franchise is given to all qualified adult citizens. This means that all citizens who meet the required qualifications, such as age and citizenship, are allowed to vote and participate in the democratic process. This is an important aspect of democracy as it ensures that all citizens have a say in the decision-making process and are able to hold their elected officials accountable. It also promotes equality and fairness in the political system by giving everyone an equal opportunity to participate.

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The first elected executive president of Nigeria was Alhaji Shehu Shagari. He was elected as the president in 1979 under the Second Republic following the end of military rule in Nigeria. Prior to his presidency, he had served as a member of parliament, minister, and as the vice-president under General Olusegun Obasanjo. Shagari was elected under the platform of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) and he served as the president until 1983 when a military coup led by General Muhammadu Buhari overthrew his government.

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In the Second Republic of Nigeria, the state legislature was called the "House of Assembly". The House of Assembly was responsible for making laws and overseeing the activities of the state government. Each state had its own House of Assembly, and the members were elected by the people of the state to represent them in the legislative process. The House of Assembly worked in conjunction with the National Assembly, which was responsible for making laws at the federal level.

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On attainment of independence, Nigeria declared that she would adopt the policy of non-alignment. This meant that Nigeria would not take sides with any of the contending power blocs in the international system. The policy of non-alignment was based on the belief that Nigeria should maintain its independence and sovereignty, and not align itself with any of the major power blocs of the time, such as the United States or the Soviet Union. This allowed Nigeria to pursue its own interests and objectives, rather than being dictated to by external powers. Furthermore, non-alignment allowed Nigeria to remain neutral in international conflicts, such as the Cold War, and focus on promoting African unity and cooperation. This meant that Nigeria would not seek the opinion of her West African neighbours before taking any action in international matters, nor would she take sides with any country that offers aids to her. Overall, the policy of non-alignment was an expression of Nigeria's desire to remain neutral, independent, and sovereign, and to promote cooperation and unity in Africa without interference in the internal affairs of her neighbors.

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The branch of government that is responsible for implementing laws is the Executive Branch. In a democratic system of government, the Executive Branch is usually headed by the President, Prime Minister, or some other head of state or government. The Executive Branch is responsible for enforcing and administering laws that are passed by the Legislature or Parliament. The Executive Branch is typically made up of a number of different departments, agencies, and ministries that are responsible for different areas of government. For example, there may be a Department of Education, a Department of Health, and a Department of Defense. Each of these departments is headed by a Minister or Secretary who is responsible for implementing the policies and laws that have been passed by the Legislature. In addition to implementing laws, the Executive Branch is also responsible for developing and proposing new laws and policies to address the needs of society. This is typically done through the process of developing and presenting legislation to the Legislature for consideration. Overall, the Executive Branch plays a crucial role in the functioning of a democratic system of government by ensuring that laws are effectively and efficiently implemented for the benefit of society.

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The first military government in Nigeria was headed by General Aguiyi Ironsi. After a military coup d'état on January 15, 1966, General Ironsi became the first military head of state in Nigeria. He suspended the constitution and dissolved the federal and regional governments, establishing a unitary government in Nigeria. His regime was short-lived as he was overthrown in another coup on July 29, 1966, which brought General Yakubu Gowon to power.

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To be qualified as the president of Nigeria according to the 1979 Constitution, one must have attained the age of 35 years. This means that a person must be at least 35 years old to be eligible to run for the presidency in Nigeria. The age requirement is put in place to ensure that the person who aspires to become the president has enough life experience and maturity to handle the responsibilities that come with the position.

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Under the 1979 Constitution of Nigeria, the members of the Federal Executive Council were called Ministers. The Federal Executive Council is the body responsible for advising the President on the administration of the affairs of the Federation. The Ministers were appointed by the President, with the approval of the Senate, to oversee the various ministries of the government, such as Health, Education, and Finance. The Ministers were accountable to the President and the National Assembly for the performance of their duties.

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The Nigeria Teachers Institute is not a public corporation. Public corporations are government-owned businesses that operate independently to provide services and generate revenue for the government. These corporations are established by the government and operate under specific laws and regulations. The Nigeria Ports Authority, National Electric Power Authority, Nigeria National Shipping Line, and Nigeria Steel Development Authority are all public corporations in Nigeria. They are established by the government to provide specific services to the public and generate revenue for the government. The Nigeria Teachers Institute, on the other hand, is a government institution established to provide training and professional development for teachers in Nigeria. It is not a business or service provider, and therefore not a public corporation.

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A government in which the control of ultimate power is by a few who rule for their own selfish interest is classified as an oligarchy. In an oligarchy, a small group of people, usually from the elite or wealthy class, hold all the power and make decisions that benefit their own interests rather than the interests of the general population. This small group of people can be from any sector of society, including political, economic, or military. Oligarchies are characterized by the concentration of power in the hands of a few, who often use their influence to control the media, judiciary, and other institutions to maintain their hold on power. This can lead to a lack of transparency, accountability, and responsiveness to the needs and desires of the general population. In contrast, democracies are governments in which the power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. In a democracy, the interests of the general population are taken into consideration in decision-making, and there are checks and balances in place to ensure that those in power are held accountable to the people. Overall, oligarchies are governments in which a few individuals hold all the power and make decisions that benefit their own interests, while democracies are governments in which the power is held by the people, and decisions are made to benefit the interests of the general population.

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In a unitary system of government, there is a high degree of centralization, which means that power and authority are concentrated in the central government. The central government has the power to make decisions and set policies that are binding on all parts of the country, including local governments and other sub-national units. In a unitary system, the parliament may not necessarily be weak, but it is subordinate to the central government. This means that the parliament may have limited powers and may not be able to challenge or override the decisions of the central government. There is typically a low degree of decentralization in a unitary system of government, as power is not shared equally among different levels of government. Local governments and other sub-national units may have limited autonomy and may be subject to the authority of the central government. Overall, a unitary system of government is characterized by a strong central government and a hierarchical relationship between different levels of government. Legislative powers can be delegated to local councils, but the central government retains ultimate authority.

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The second military coup d'état in Nigeria took place on July 29, 1966.

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The first Governor-General of colonial Nigeria was Lord Frederick Lugard. He was appointed in 1914 and served until 1919. Lord Lugard was a British colonial administrator who played a significant role in the establishment of British rule in Nigeria. He is remembered for his policy of indirect rule, which involved using traditional rulers and existing administrative structures to govern the country. During his time as Governor-General, Lord Lugard was instrumental in the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates of Nigeria into a single administrative unit, which later became known as Nigeria. He also oversaw the implementation of various policies and reforms aimed at modernizing the country and improving its economy. Overall, Lord Lugard's tenure as Governor-General of colonial Nigeria laid the foundation for the country's future development and political system. He left a lasting impact on the country's history and is remembered as a key figure in the early years of British colonial rule in Nigeria.

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In the pre-colonial era, the Igbo people of Eastern Nigeria did not have a centralized government. Instead, they had a system of governance that was based on the autonomous village level. Each village had its own governing council, which was made up of the eldest men in the community. These councils were responsible for making decisions on behalf of the community and resolving disputes. The Igbo also had an age-grade system, which was a social organization based on age. Members of each age-grade would move up to the next level after a certain number of years, and this system provided a framework for the community to organize labor and social activities. While there were no formal kings or rulers, some villages had appointed chiefs who were responsible for carrying out the decisions of the council. These chiefs were not dictatorial in nature, but rather served as respected members of the community who were chosen for their wisdom and leadership qualities. It's worth noting that during the colonial period, the British authorities introduced the concept of "warrant chiefs" as a way to exert more control over the Igbo people. These warrant chiefs were appointed by the colonial government and often acted in ways that were not in the best interests of their communities. However, this was not a part of the traditional pre-colonial Igbo system of governance.

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The process whereby the electorate vote for representatives who in turn vote on their behalf is called an indirect election. In an indirect election, the people do not directly elect their leaders, but rather they elect representatives who will act on their behalf. These representatives are usually members of a legislative body such as a parliament or congress. In an indirect election, the people have the power to choose their representatives, who will then be responsible for making decisions on their behalf. This system is commonly used in democratic countries around the world, where the people elect their representatives to make laws and policies that will benefit society as a whole. An indirect election allows for the representation of diverse interests and views, and it also helps to ensure that the decision-making process is fair and impartial. It is an important feature of modern democratic systems, and it provides citizens with a voice in government and a means of holding their representatives accountable.

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A system in which powerful and rich nobles own the lands which are hired out to the poor people to farm is called feudalism. In a feudal system, the nobles or lords are the owners of the land, and they lease out portions of it to peasants or serfs, who work on the land in exchange for protection and the right to farm a portion of the land for their own subsistence. This system was prevalent in medieval Europe and was characterized by a hierarchical social structure, where power and wealth were concentrated in the hands of a few privileged classes, while the majority of people worked the land as serfs or peasants.

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Why Some West African Countries Adopt the Unitary System While Others Do Not

A unitary system is one in which all governmental powers are concentrated in a single central government, while a federal system shares powers between a central government and component (regional/state) units. The choice between them depends on the peculiar conditions of each country.

Reasons some West African countries adopt the unitary system:

1. Small size of the country: Countries with small land area, such as The Gambia, Togo or Sierra Leone, can be conveniently governed from one centre.
2. Homogeneous population: Where the people share a common language, culture and religion, there is less need to divide power among diverse groups, so a single government suffices.
3. Desire for national unity: A strong central government is seen as a way of promoting unity and preventing division and secession.
4. Economic considerations: A unitary system is cheaper to run because it avoids the duplication of governmental structures found in a federation.
5. Ease and speed of administration: Concentrating power at the centre allows quick decision-making and uniform policies throughout the country.
6. Small and manageable population: A smaller population is easier to govern from a single centre.

Reasons others do not (they adopt federalism):

1. Large size: Large countries such as Nigeria are difficult to govern from one centre and need regional units.
2. Heterogeneous/plural society: The presence of many ethnic groups, languages, religions and cultures makes it necessary to share power and give each group a sense of belonging.
3. Fear of domination: Minority groups prefer federalism to protect themselves from domination by a single central power.
4. Historical background: Some states were formed by joining together formerly separate units that wished to retain some autonomy.
5. Uneven development: Wide differences in the level of development among regions favour a system that allows regional self-management.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)

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(a) The Concept of the Rule of Law

The Rule of Law is the principle that a country should be governed by law and not by the arbitrary wishes of individuals in power. It was popularised by A.V. Dicey and rests on three main pillars:

• Supremacy of the law: No one can be punished except for a definite breach of the law established in the ordinary courts; government must act according to law.
• Equality before the law: All persons, high or low, are subject to the same law and the same courts, and no one is above the law.
• Fundamental rights of the individual: The rights and liberties of citizens are guaranteed and protected by the ordinary courts.

Other principles associated with it include the independence of the judiciary, fair hearing, and the presumption of innocence until proved guilty.

(b) Problems Associated with the Application of the Rule of Law

1. Official immunity: Heads of state, governors and diplomats enjoy immunity and cannot be prosecuted while in office, breaching equality before the law.
2. Delegated legislation: The making of laws by the executive and agencies, sometimes with wide discretionary powers, conflicts with the supremacy of the law.
3. Emergency powers and decrees: During states of emergency or military rule, rights are suspended and rule by decree replaces the ordinary law.
4. Corruption in the judiciary and police: Bribery and manipulation of justice undermine equality before the law.
5. Influence of wealth and status: The rich and powerful can secure better legal defence and manipulate the system, unlike the poor.
6. Ignorance and illiteracy: Many citizens do not know their rights and cannot enforce them.
7. Discrimination: Ethnic, religious, political or class bias leads to unequal treatment.
8. Preventive detention and ouster clauses: Detention without trial and laws that oust the jurisdiction of the courts weaken the rule of law.

(Any relevant problems are acceptable.)

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(a) Constitution and Constitutionalism distinguished

A constitution is the body of fundamental rules, written or unwritten, by which a state is governed. It defines the structure of government, the powers and functions of the various organs, the relationship between them and between the government and the citizens, and the rights and duties of the people.

Constitutionalism, on the other hand, is the practice of limited government in which those who exercise power actually govern according to the provisions of the constitution and the rule of law. It means that government is not arbitrary but restrained by established rules. Thus a country may have a constitution without practising constitutionalism, but constitutionalism cannot exist without a constitution.

(b) Characteristics of a Constitutional Government

1. Limited government: The powers of government are defined and limited by the constitution and are not exercised arbitrarily.
2. Rule of law: Government and citizens alike are subject to the law, and no one is above the law.
3. Separation of powers and checks and balances: Power is shared among the legislature, executive and judiciary, each checking the others.
4. Guarantee and protection of fundamental human rights: The rights and freedoms of citizens are entrenched and protected.
5. Independent judiciary: The courts are free to interpret the law and settle disputes without interference.
6. Free, fair and periodic elections: Leaders are chosen by the people through regular elections and are accountable to them.
7. Accountability and openness: Those in authority are responsible to the people and govern in accordance with the constitution.
8. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution is the highest law, and any act inconsistent with it is null and void.

(Any relevant characteristics are acceptable.)

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The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM), formed in 1934 (originally as the Lagos Youth Movement), was the first genuinely nationalist organisation to reach beyond Lagos and attempt to unite Nigerians across ethnic and regional lines. Its contributions to the growth of nationalism in Nigeria include the following:

1. Broadening the base of nationalism: Unlike the earlier Lagos-centred parties, the NYM recruited members from different parts of the country and set up branches in the provinces, giving nationalism a more national, rather than purely Lagosian, character.
2. Formulation of a national programme: In 1938 it published The Nigerian Youth Charter, which demanded complete autonomy within the British Empire, equal economic and political rights for Nigerians, and an end to discrimination. This was one of the earliest coherent statements of nationalist aims.
3. Contesting elections: The NYM entered electoral politics and in 1938 defeated Herbert Macaulay's Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in the Lagos Town Council and Legislative Council elections, demonstrating that organised nationalist opposition could win power.
4. Political education and mobilisation: Through its newspaper (the Daily Service), public lectures and rallies, it awakened political consciousness and taught Nigerians to demand their rights.
5. Championing economic grievances: It protested against discriminatory colonial economic policies, the marginalisation of Nigerian traders and produce buyers, and inequalities in the civil service.
6. Fighting discrimination in employment and education: It campaigned against the exclusion of qualified Nigerians from senior posts and pressed for improved and expanded educational opportunities, including agitation over the status of Yaba Higher College.
7. Training a generation of nationalist leaders: Prominent figures such as Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, H. O. Davies and Ernest Ikoli passed through the movement, and the experience prepared them for later leadership of parties such as the NCNC and Action Group.

Although the NYM later collapsed through internal crisis in 1941, it laid the organisational and ideological foundations upon which the mass nationalist movement of the 1940s and 1950s was built.

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Limitations to the Powers of the Governor in Colonial Nigeria Before the Second World War

Although the Governor was the head of the colonial administration and wielded very wide powers, his authority was not unlimited. It was checked in the following ways:

1. Control by the British Government/Colonial Office: The Governor was an agent of the British Crown and had to act in accordance with the instructions and directives of the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London.
2. The Legislative Council: The Governor had to make laws through the Legislative Council, whose members (including a few elected and nominated Africans after 1922) could criticise and debate his proposals.
3. The Executive Council: He was expected to consult and act with the advice of the Executive Council of senior officials in the day-to-day running of the government.
4. Financial control by Britain: The colonial budget and major financial decisions were subject to approval from the Colonial Office, limiting the Governor's spending powers.
5. British laws and the constitution: The Governor had to operate within the framework of existing laws, orders-in-council and the constitution in force at the time.
6. Public opinion and nationalist pressure: The activities of the press, nationalists and educated elites, and later political parties, put pressure on the Governor and moderated his actions.
7. The judiciary: The courts could interpret the law and check illegal exercise of power.
8. Limited jurisdiction over the North: Under indirect rule, the Native Authorities and Emirs handled much local administration, so the Governor did not directly control all local affairs.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)

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(a) Functions of the Electoral Commission in the Electoral Process

1. Registration of voters: It compiles, maintains and updates the register of eligible voters and issues voters' cards.
2. Registration of political parties: It registers and monitors political parties and ensures they comply with the law.
3. Delimitation of constituencies: It divides the country into constituencies and creates polling units.
4. Conduct of elections: It organises and conducts free and fair elections into the various elective offices.
5. Provision of election materials and personnel: It procures ballot papers, boxes and other materials and recruits and trains ad-hoc staff.
6. Counting of votes and declaration of results: It counts the votes, collates and announces the results, and issues certificates of return to winners.
7. Regulation of campaign finance: It monitors campaign spending and enforces the electoral guidelines.
8. Voter education: It educates and enlightens the public on the voting process.

(b) Problems Likely to Hinder the Success of the Commission in Nigeria

1. Political interference: Where the commission is not truly independent, the ruling government may interfere with its work.
2. Inadequate funding: Shortage of funds affects preparation, logistics and payment of staff.
3. Electoral malpractice: Rigging, thuggery, ballot snatching and bribery by desperate politicians undermine its work.
4. Inadequate and unreliable materials/technology: Late arrival or failure of materials and voting machines disrupts the process.
5. Insecurity and violence: Political violence and insecurity in some areas make free voting difficult.
6. Poor and inaccurate voters' register: Padded or inaccurate registers create room for manipulation.
7. Corrupt and inefficient staff: Some officials may be compromised or lack the competence to perform their duties.
8. Litigation and legal disputes: Endless court cases and challenges to results hamper the process.
9. Voter apathy and ignorance: Low turnout and lack of awareness weaken the credibility of elections.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)

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Importance of the Local Government System in Nigeria

Local government is the third tier of government, established to bring governance closer to the people at the grassroots. Its importance includes the following:

1. Grassroots development: It provides basic amenities such as rural roads, markets, health centres, primary schools, water and sanitation directly to the local people.
2. Bringing government closer to the people: It reduces the distance between government and the governed, so that local needs are quickly identified and met.
3. Political participation and education: It gives ordinary citizens the opportunity to take part in government, contest elections and learn the practice of democracy at the local level.
4. Training ground for future leaders: It serves as a nursery where politicians and administrators gain experience before moving to higher levels of government.
5. Encouraging even development: It helps to spread development to rural areas that might otherwise be neglected by the state and federal governments.
6. Mobilisation of the people: It mobilises local human and material resources for self-help projects and community development.
7. Relieving the higher tiers of government: By handling purely local matters, it reduces the burden on state and federal governments and promotes efficiency.
8. Maintenance of law and order: It assists in maintaining peace and order and in settling minor disputes at the community level.
9. Provision of employment: It creates jobs for many people at the local level.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)

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Meaning: The ECOWAS Fund for Co-operation, Compensation and Development was one of the principal institutions established under the 1975 Treaty of Lagos that founded the Economic Community of West African States. It was set up as the community's financing arm, with its headquarters in Lome, Togo. Its capital was contributed by member states, and it also drew resources from grants, loans and aid from within and outside the region. Its central purpose was to correct the imbalance in the levels of economic development among member states and to bear the cost of integration. (The Fund was later transformed into the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development, EBID.)

Uses / functions of the Fund:

1. Financing development projects: It provided loans and financial assistance for infrastructure and development projects such as roads, telecommunications, energy and other community programmes.
2. Compensation for revenue loss: It compensated member states, especially the poorer ones, for the loss of import duties and other revenues suffered as a result of trade liberalisation and the removal of tariffs within the community.
3. Reducing developmental imbalance: It channelled resources to the less-developed member states so as to narrow the gap between the richer and poorer economies of the region.
4. Promoting balanced regional development: It financed projects of a community-wide character that individual states could not undertake alone, thereby spreading the benefits of integration.
5. Guaranteeing and mobilising investment: It guaranteed foreign investment and helped to mobilise both internal and external capital for regional development.
6. Supporting integration and cushioning adjustment: It cushioned the adverse effects of the establishment of the common market on the economies of member states.

In short, the Fund served as the instrument for financing co-operation, compensating members for integration losses, and promoting even development across West Africa.

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The General Conference held at Ibadan in January 1950 was summoned to review the Richards Constitution of 1946 and to gather Nigerian opinion on a new constitution. It was one of the widest consultative exercises of the colonial period, involving representatives drawn from the regional Houses. Its main decisions and recommendations were as follows:

1. Retention of federalism: The conference agreed that Nigeria should continue as a federation of three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern), thereby endorsing the regional structure introduced by the Richards Constitution.
2. A new central legislature: It recommended the creation of a Central House of Representatives to replace the old Legislative Council, with a much larger membership so as to give Nigerians a stronger voice at the centre.
3. Regional legislatures with real powers: Each region was to have its own House of Assembly (and a House of Chiefs in the North and West) empowered to make laws on regional matters, thus deepening regionalism.
4. Increased African representation and elected members: The conference urged a larger proportion of elected Nigerian members in the legislatures and a reduction of the dominance of official (colonial) members.
5. Greater ministerial responsibility: Nigerians were to be appointed as ministers to head departments, introducing a measure of executive responsibility for indigenous leaders.
6. Allocation of seats among regions: The conference debated and made proposals on the sharing of seats in the central legislature, with the North insisting on representation reflecting its large population, which shaped the eventual formula of parity in the Macpherson Constitution.
7. Widening of the franchise: It recommended an expansion of the electorate and the extension of the elective principle beyond the few coastal towns.

These decisions were substantially embodied in the Macpherson Constitution of 1951, which the conference directly influenced. The Ibadan Conference is therefore significant as the first serious attempt to make constitution-making in Nigeria a consultative, Nigerian-driven process rather than a purely colonial imposition.