WAEC SSCE - Government - 1993

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The Amazon basin is sparsely populated because of the dense vegetation cover. The thick tropical rainforest in the Amazon basin provides a challenging environment for human habitation, making it difficult for people to clear the land for agriculture, transportation, or settlement. Additionally, the region is also home to many endemic species of plants and animals, making it a unique and valuable ecological asset that should be protected. As a result, many people who have lived in the Amazon for generations have chosen to maintain traditional ways of life, such as hunting and gathering, rather than trying to establish permanent settlements. Additionally, the government has implemented policies to protect the Amazon rainforest and prevent deforestation, which has limited the amount of land available for agriculture or settlement.

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Sovereignty is the supreme power of a state to make and enforce laws within its jurisdiction. It is the authority that a government has over its territory and people, and it is recognized by other countries in the international community. Sovereignty implies that a government has the power to make decisions for the benefit of its citizens and to protect its interests both domestically and internationally.

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In a unitary system of government, there is no constitutional division of power among the different levels of government. This means that all power is concentrated in the central government, which can delegate some powers to regional or local governments as it sees fit. The central government is responsible for making laws and policies that apply to the entire country, and regional or local governments are subordinate to it. Unlike a federal system, there is no separate constitution for the regions or local governments, and their powers can be changed or revoked by the central government.

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Arid regions have a great potential for solar energy. Solar energy is a renewable energy source that uses the sun's radiation to generate electricity or heat. Arid regions receive high levels of sunlight, which makes them ideal locations for solar energy production. Solar panels can be installed in these regions to capture the sun's energy and convert it into electricity. In addition, arid regions often have large areas of open land that can be used for solar farms or solar power plants. Therefore, solar energy is a viable and sustainable option for arid regions.

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The option that is not a hindrance to political participation is "Party system." A party system is a framework within which political parties operate in a country. It helps to create an environment for political participation, rather than being a hindrance. The other options listed are hindrances to political participation in different ways. Ignorance, lack of interest, fear, and intimidation can all discourage people from participating in politics and exercising their civic duties.

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The legislature checks the executive by demanding the review of an executive action. This means that if the executive takes a decision or action that is deemed inappropriate or unconstitutional, the legislature can demand a review of that action or decision to ensure that it aligns with the laws of the land. This is a way of ensuring that the executive does not act outside the bounds of the law or abuse its power.

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When a high court declares an action of the executive ultra-vires, it means that the action is illegal and of no effect. The term ultra-vires means "beyond powers." Therefore, the court has determined that the executive has acted beyond its legal powers and, as a result, the action is deemed illegal and invalid. This decision requires the executive to reconsider the action or find an alternative solution that is within its legal powers. It does not necessarily mean that a vote of no confidence has been passed on the executive by the judiciary, as that is a separate political process.

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Legitimacy refers to the acceptance of the right to rule by the people being governed. It means that the people view the government as being authorized and rightful to govern them, usually based on some form of democratic process, such as elections or the rule of law. Legitimacy is important for the stability of a government, as it implies that people willingly accept the authority of the government and are more likely to follow its laws and regulations.

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The question is asking to identify the option that is not a serious problem of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Here's a simple explanation of each option: - The economies of member states are not complementary: This refers to the fact that member states have different economic strengths and weaknesses, which can make it difficult for them to work together. This is a serious problem for ECOWAS because it can make it difficult to achieve economic integration and cooperation. - Member states are primary producers: This means that member states rely heavily on exporting raw materials and natural resources. This is a serious problem for ECOWAS because it can make member states vulnerable to fluctuations in global commodity prices. - Members states have dependent economies: This refers to the fact that member states rely heavily on imports from other countries. This is a serious problem for ECOWAS because it can make member states vulnerable to changes in global trade patterns and can limit their economic independence. - The monetary policies of member states differ: This means that member states have different policies and strategies for managing their currencies and monetary systems. This is a serious problem for ECOWAS because it can make it difficult to achieve monetary union and can lead to instability in the region. - Member states speak different languages: This refers to the fact that member states have different official languages and may not be able to communicate effectively with each other. While this is a challenge for ECOWAS, it is not considered a serious problem compared to the other options. Therefore, the option that is not a serious problem of ECOWAS is "Member states speak different languages".

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Freedom of association is important because it allows individuals to come together to form interest groups and organizations to pursue common goals and interests. This freedom is a fundamental human right recognized in many countries and is essential for the functioning of a democratic society. It enables individuals to freely express their ideas, beliefs, and opinions, and to participate in collective action to bring about social and political change. Associations are also often involved in charitable work, promoting cultural and artistic activities, and providing a space for people to connect and build social networks. Thus, freedom of association is crucial for individual autonomy, social progress, and democratic governance.

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The feature that until recently was performed by local government in Nigeria is the registration of births. Local governments in Nigeria were responsible for registering births, deaths, and marriages within their jurisdiction. This was done to keep a record of the population and to provide data for planning and policy-making purposes. However, in recent times, the responsibility for registering births has been transferred to the National Population Commission (NPC) which is a federal government agency.

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The term "fertile" refers to the ability of soil to support the growth of plants. Therefore, the option that is not fertile would be the one where the soil is not capable of supporting plant growth. Among the given options, "erosional plains" are not fertile because they are formed due to the erosion of soil by wind or water, resulting in soil that lacks the necessary nutrients and moisture for plant growth. In contrast, alluvial plains, flood plains, deltaic plains, and loess plains are fertile due to the deposition of nutrient-rich sediments, which make the soil suitable for plant growth.

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Coastal erosion refers to the gradual wearing away of the coastline due to the action of natural agents like waves, wind, and tides. The intensity of coastal erosion depends on several factors, such as the natural waves, the strength of wind, the type of rocks and sediments on the coast, and the rate of sea level rise. Additionally, the amount of human activities like coastal fishing, waste disposal, and damming of distributaries can also affect the intensity of coastal erosion. For example, excessive fishing can lead to the depletion of marine organisms that hold the sand and soil together, while the deposition of waste on the coast can alter the chemical composition of the water and soil, making it difficult for plants and animals to survive. Overall, the intensity of coastal erosion is a complex phenomenon that is influenced by both natural and human factors.

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The act of influencing voters through material gifts is known as "vote buying." It is a form of electoral malpractice where voters are offered money, gifts, or other forms of incentives in exchange for their votes. This practice is illegal in many countries, including Nigeria, where it is punishable by law. Vote buying is considered a form of electoral corruption because it undermines the integrity of the electoral process and undermines the principle of fair and free elections.

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Air pollution may cause acid rain formation. This occurs when pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide mix with water vapor in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which then fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid rain can cause damage to buildings, forests, crops, and aquatic life, and can also have harmful effects on human health.

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The degree of fineness or coarseness of rocks is referred to as texture. Texture is one of the properties used to describe rocks and is determined by the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains or crystals in the rock. Texture is an important characteristic of rocks as it provides information about the conditions under which the rock was formed and the subsequent geological processes that have affected it. For example, a fine-grained texture may indicate rapid cooling of molten rock, while a coarse-grained texture may indicate slow cooling or the presence of larger mineral crystals.

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Under the independence constitution of Nigeria, the Head of State was the Queen of England. This was because Nigeria was a constitutional monarchy, with the Queen as the symbolic head of state while the Prime Minister, in this case, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, held executive power. The Queen was represented in Nigeria by the Governor-General, who was Sir James Robertson at the time.

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In a presidential system of government, ministers are individually responsible to the president. This means that each minister is accountable to the president for the actions and decisions of their ministry. The president has the power to hire and fire ministers as they see fit. Unlike in a parliamentary system, ministers are not collectively responsible to the legislature or parliament. Instead, they are accountable only to the president and ultimately to the people who elected them.

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The equatorial forest is characterised by sparse undergrowth because little or no light reaches the ground. The tall trees in the forest form a dense canopy that prevents sunlight from reaching the lower layers of the forest, which makes it difficult for smaller plants to grow. As a result, the forest floor is often bare, with little undergrowth compared to other types of forests.

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The last colonial Governor for Nigeria was Sir James Robertson. Sir James Robertson served as the Governor-General of Nigeria from 1960 to 1962, and as the Governor of Nigeria from 1962 to 1963, when Nigeria gained its independence from Britain.

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The description refers to clay soil. Clay soil is composed of fine particles that are tightly packed together, making it difficult for air and water to move through it. It has many tiny and numerous pores that hold water and nutrients, making it an excellent soil for plants. However, because of its structure, it is difficult to cultivate and can become hard when dry.

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The judiciary can only be independent when there is security of tenure of office for judges. This means that judges should be appointed and removed based on their qualifications and performance, and not subject to political influence or pressure from other branches of government. This allows them to interpret and apply the law fairly and impartially, without fear of reprisals or repercussions. When judges have security of tenure, they can make decisions based on the facts and the law, without undue influence or interference, and can act as a check and balance on the other branches of government.

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An environmental balance is best maintained where man's influence is almost absent. This is because human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and overfishing, can disrupt the natural balance of an ecosystem. When man's influence is minimal, natural processes such as the carbon cycle and water cycle can occur without interference. This allows flora and fauna to thrive in their natural habitats, leading to a healthier and more sustainable environment. While conservation efforts and re-afforestation can help to restore damaged ecosystems, it is essential to prevent human activities that can harm the environment in the first place.

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When the equatorial easterlies undercut the tropical maritime air mass, they cause a line squall. The equatorial easterlies are a type of wind that blow from east to west along the equator. They are warm and humid and often carry large amounts of moisture. The tropical maritime air mass is a type of air mass that is warm and moist, and is often found over the oceans in the tropics. When the equatorial easterlies undercut the tropical maritime air mass, the warm, moist air is forced upward, causing a line squall. A line squall is a narrow band of strong winds and heavy rain that can form along a cold front. It can be accompanied by thunderstorms and lightning, and can be dangerous for ships and other sea-going vessels.

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Any constitution that has special rules for its amendment is said to be rigid. A rigid constitution is one that cannot be easily amended or changed by the government. It usually requires a special process, such as a supermajority vote in the legislature or a referendum, to make any amendments. This is done to ensure that the constitution is not easily changed and provides stability and continuity in governance. Countries such as the United States, Australia, and India have rigid constitutions.

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The question is asking which of the following options is not an aim or objective of ECOWAS. ECOWAS stands for the Economic Community of West African States, which is a regional organization of fifteen West African countries that was established to promote economic integration and cooperation among its members. Option "raise the political consciousness of the people" is not an aim or objective of ECOWAS. The other options are all aims and objectives of ECOWAS. To summarize, the answer is: - raise the political consciousness of the people (not an aim or objective of ECOWAS)

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The highest court of appeal under the Nigerian independence constitution was the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. This was because Nigeria was still a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations and therefore, the highest court of appeal was the Privy Council in London, UK. The Privy Council was responsible for hearing appeals from all parts of the Commonwealth including Nigeria. However, the Privy Council was replaced by the Supreme Court of Nigeria as the highest court of appeal in 1963, after Nigeria became a republic.

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The amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria in 1914 by Lord Lugard was to make for administrative convenience. The colonial administration believed that a unified administration of Nigeria would be more efficient and less expensive to run than two separate administrations for the North and South. This amalgamation created the modern-day Nigeria, bringing together the different ethnic and cultural groups into one political entity. However, it also had negative consequences, including the suppression of the identities of the different regions and the imposition of a centralized system of government that favored the North over the South.

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The largest area of temperate grassland occurs in the Steppes of Eurasia. Temperate grasslands, also known as prairies or steppes, are vast areas of grasslands found in the temperate zones, usually in the interior of continents. The Steppes of Eurasia are located in the middle of the continent, covering areas of Eastern Europe and Asia. They are characterized by grasslands, savannas, and shrublands, with a semi-arid climate and cold winters. The region is home to various species of animals, including antelopes, gazelles, wolves, and foxes, among others. The Steppes of Eurasia are an important source of agricultural production and have been used for grazing livestock for centuries.

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The planet often considered as the Earth's twin because of their close similarity in size, mass, and density is Venus. Venus is a terrestrial planet like Earth, meaning it is composed of rocks and metals with a solid surface. It is the second planet from the sun and is only slightly smaller than Earth. The similarity between Venus and Earth's size and density makes it a popular subject of study for scientists interested in comparing the two planets.

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The "Uniting for Peace" resolution of the UNO was adopted in 1950. The resolution was introduced in response to the Soviet Union's use of its veto power in the Security Council to block a resolution regarding the Korean War. The resolution provided a means for the General Assembly to take action in cases where the Security Council was deadlocked due to the use of the veto power. Under the resolution, if the Security Council was unable to maintain international peace and security due to a lack of unanimity among its permanent members, the General Assembly could convene an emergency special session and make recommendations for collective measures to be taken by UN member states.

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Karl Marx believed that socialism was a transitional stage between capitalism and communism. He argued that capitalism would eventually give way to socialism, where workers would have control over the means of production and wealth would be distributed more equally. Marx believed that socialism would create the conditions necessary for communism to emerge, which would be a classless society where everyone worked for the common good and there was no private property. So, according to Marx, socialism is the prelude to communism.

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The 1946 Richard Constitution was a British colonial document that granted limited powers to Nigerians to participate in their own governance. One major weakness of this constitution was its limited application of the elective principle. The elective principle refers to the ability of citizens to directly elect their representatives into office. In the 1946 Richard Constitution, only a small percentage of Nigerians were allowed to vote and run for office, which meant that the majority of Nigerians were excluded from participating in their own governance. This weakened the legitimacy of the government and made it difficult for the constitution to be fully accepted by the Nigerian people.

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The U.N.O's estimate of the world's population by the year 2000 was 6,500,000,000. This means that the United Nations projected that the world's population would reach 6.5 billion people by the year 2000.

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The ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) was organized to maintain peace in Liberia. ECOMOG was a regional peacekeeping force created by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in 1990 to end the civil war in Liberia. ECOMOG's mission was to monitor the cease-fire, disarm warring factions, and provide security to the civilian population. The deployment of ECOMOG helped to stabilize the situation in Liberia and contributed to the resolution of the conflict.

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Certified bankrupt is not eligible to vote. This is because in many countries, including the United States, individuals who have been declared bankrupt are often prohibited from voting as a result of restrictions placed on their civil rights. This is because bankruptcy is seen as a form of financial irresponsibility, and there is a belief that individuals who have been bankrupt may not be fully engaged citizens who are able to make informed decisions about political issues.

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Great Britain operates an unwritten constitution. An unwritten constitution is a system of government that has no written constitution or codified laws. It is based on a set of traditions, customs, and practices that have evolved over time. Great Britain has a parliamentary system of government that is based on the principles of parliamentary supremacy, the rule of law, and the separation of powers. The UK's constitution is made up of various sources including statutes, case law, and conventions.

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Katsina and Akwa Ibom state were created in different years. However, the question asks in which year they were created. To answer the question, we need to choose one of the given options. The correct answer is 1987.

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The rule of law is the principle that everyone, regardless of their position, power, or wealth, is subject to the law and no one is above the law. It means that the law should be applied equally and fairly to all individuals and that legal decisions should be based on existing laws and not on the personal preferences of those in power. The rule of law is an important aspect of democracy and protects individuals from arbitrary actions by those in authority.

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The Koppen classification of climates is a widely used system that categorizes different climates based on their temperature and precipitation patterns. Some advantages of this classification system include its ability to include montane and sub-humid climates, its adaptability for use at different educational levels, and its emphasis on the link between vegetation and soils. However, one of the options provided states that the Koppen classification of climates does not have an advantage in a certain area. Therefore, the answer to this question would be that the option that does not belong is the one that describes the Koppen classification system as "very easy". There is no evidence to support the idea that the system is particularly easy or difficult to use.

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The rights of the individual refer to the claims he can make against others or against the state, which are protected and recognized by the law. These rights include basic human rights such as the right to life, liberty, and property, as well as social, economic, and cultural rights, such as the right to education, healthcare, and a fair standard of living. The recognition and protection of individual rights are fundamental to a democratic society and the rule of law.

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The historic feature of the Legislative Council of Nigeria that met in 1923 was that for the first time, it included elected African members. Prior to this, the Legislative Council only included British officials and official members who were Nigerians appointed by the British colonial government. The inclusion of elected African members was a significant step towards greater representation of Nigerians in their own government, although the Council still remained largely under British control.

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The most important duty of every citizen is to discharge his responsibilities to the state. This means that citizens have a responsibility to contribute to the development and progress of their country by paying taxes, obeying the law, serving in the military (if required), participating in democratic processes, and generally being law-abiding and productive members of society. This duty is important because it ensures that the country is stable, secure and well-functioning, and that the government is able to provide services and infrastructure that benefit everyone. Without citizens fulfilling their duty to the state, a country cannot thrive or achieve its full potential.

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Delegated legislation refers to laws made by executive bodies rather than by the legislative arm of government. One of the criticisms against delegated legislation is that it encroaches on parliamentary power. This means that laws are made by individuals or bodies that are not directly accountable to the people through the electoral process, thereby undermining democratic accountability. Some argue that delegated legislation gives too much power to the executive, leading to abuse and potentially unconstitutional actions. While delegated legislation is practiced in many countries, some argue that it should be limited and subject to greater scrutiny to prevent abuse of power.

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The electoral success of a political party depends on its ability to present a good and acceptable manifesto. This means that the party must have a clear and coherent message that resonates with voters and addresses their concerns. A good manifesto should outline the party's policies, programs and plans to tackle various challenges facing the society. By doing so, the party is able to build trust and confidence with voters, and increase its chances of winning the election. Other factors such as effective campaign strategies, financial resources, and avoiding negative tactics may also contribute to electoral success, but the party's manifesto is often the most important factor.

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The statement is asking which of the following options is not true about Herbert Macaulay. Herbert Macaulay was a prominent Nigerian political figure and nationalist. He was a co-founder of the National Council of Nigeria and the Camerouns (NCNC), founder of the Lagos Daily News, and first Nigerian to found a political party. However, he was not the founder of the National Congress of British West Africa and did not found the Nigeria National Democratic Party (NNDP). Therefore, the option that is not true of Herbert Macaulay is that he was the founder of the National Congress of British West Africa and the Nigeria National Democratic Party (NNDP).

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The relationship between the components of an ecosystem can be described as inter-dependent. This means that the organisms within an ecosystem depend on one another to survive and maintain a balanced ecosystem. For example, plants produce oxygen which is necessary for animals to breathe, while animals produce carbon dioxide which is necessary for plants to photosynthesize. Additionally, animals and plants provide food for each other, while microorganisms help in the decomposition of dead organic matter, which provides nutrients for plants to grow. Thus, the components of an ecosystem are interconnected and interdependent, and any changes or disruptions to one component can have a cascading effect on the entire ecosystem.

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The forest type that is characterized by trees which are adapted to cold winters and have needle-shaped leaves with little undergrowth is a Coniferous Forest. Coniferous forests are also known as taiga or boreal forests and are found in cold, northern regions. They are dominated by evergreen trees such as spruces, firs, pines, and larches, which have needle-like leaves and can survive harsh winter conditions. Due to the cold temperatures, there is limited undergrowth in coniferous forests, and the forest floor is often covered with mosses, lichens, and low shrubs.

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The duty of a civil servant is to advise on policy formulation. Civil servants are non-partisan officials who are employed to carry out the policies of the government of the day, irrespective of their personal political affiliations. One of their main responsibilities is to provide impartial and expert advice to the government on policy formulation, implementation and evaluation. Their loyalty is to the government and the country, not to any political party. Civil servants are expected to be non-partisan and should not publicly associate with any political party to avoid any perceived or actual conflict of interest.

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The wind being described in the statement is the Sirocco wind. It originates from the Sahara desert and blows over the Mediterranean Sea into southern Europe, bringing with it hot, dry and dusty conditions.

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Government by the few for the interest of the few is known as oligarchy. Oligarchy is a form of government where a small group of people have control and power over a country or organization. In an oligarchic system, the ruling class usually consists of wealthy and powerful individuals who hold a disproportionate amount of political influence and economic resources, often at the expense of the majority of the population. Therefore, oligarchy is a type of rule that is often criticized for being undemocratic and favoring the interests of the few over the common good.

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The French colonial policy of assimilation sought to integrate French colonies with France administratively, politically, and culturally. This meant that French culture, language, and institutions were imposed on the colonized people, and they were expected to adopt French ways of life. Unlike the British colonial policy of Indirect Rule, which allowed local rulers to maintain some autonomy and rule on behalf of the British, the French policy sought to fully incorporate the colonies into France. The policy was aimed at making the colonies an extension of France, with the ultimate goal of making the colonies French in every sense. Therefore, the correct option is: "sought to integrate French colonies with France administratively, politically and culturally."

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The given description corresponds to the hot desert climate. This climate is characterized by very high temperatures during the day (over 40°C) and cold nights, low humidity, and very little rainfall (less than 250mm annually). The occasional thunderstorms may occur but they are usually brief and do not bring significant amounts of rain.

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The moving force behind the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was Kwame Nkrumah. He was the first President of Ghana, and he played a key role in the Pan-African movement, which aimed to promote unity among African countries and liberation from colonialism. Nkrumah called for the creation of an organization that would unite African countries and promote their common interests, such as economic development, political stability, and the eradication of colonialism and apartheid. In May 1963, the OAU was established with the signing of the OAU Charter by 32 African countries.

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The statement that is not true of military regimes is "is benevolent." Military regimes are known for being undemocratic, autocratic, and ruling by decree. They are also typically transitory, meaning they do not intend to stay in power permanently. However, it is not accurate to say that military regimes are inherently benevolent. While there may be instances where military rulers have implemented policies that are seen as positive or beneficial, the overall track record of military regimes is mixed and often characterized by human rights abuses, political repression, and economic mismanagement.

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(a) Legal Sovereignty and Political Sovereignty distinguished

In short, the legal sovereign makes the law, but the political sovereign (the electorate/public opinion) controls the legal sovereign.

(b) Factors that Limit the Sovereignty of a Government

1. The constitution: A written and rigid constitution places limits on what government can lawfully do.
2. Public opinion: Government must respect the wishes and feelings of the people to remain in power.
3. International law and treaties: Obligations to other states and to bodies such as the UN, AU and ECOWAS restrict a government's freedom of action.
4. Fundamental human rights: Guaranteed rights of citizens set limits on the exercise of governmental power.
5. Separation of powers and checks and balances: The division of power among the arms of government limits the powers of each.
6. Pressure groups and political parties: Organised interests influence and restrain government decisions.
7. Economic dependence: Reliance on foreign aid, loans and investment limits the independence of government policy.
8. Judicial review: The power of the courts to declare acts of government unconstitutional restrains it.

(Any relevant factors are acceptable.)

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How a Naturalised Citizen May Forfeit Acquired Citizenship

A naturalised citizen is one who was not a citizen by birth but acquired citizenship after fulfilling the laid-down legal conditions. Because such citizenship is acquired rather than natural, it can be lost or forfeited in the following ways:

1. Voluntary renunciation: the citizen may, of his own free will, formally renounce or give up his acquired citizenship, usually in order to take up the citizenship of another country.
2. Imprisonment within the qualifying period: if the citizen is sentenced to imprisonment for about three years within seven years of his naturalisation, his citizenship may be withdrawn.
3. Fraud or false declaration: where the certificate of naturalisation was obtained through fraud, misrepresentation or a false declaration, or where the citizen breaches the terms of the citizenship agreement, it can be revoked.
4. Espionage or subversive activities: a citizen who engages in espionage, subversion or other acts that undermine the sovereignty and security of the state may lose his citizenship.
5. Treasonable felony: a citizen found guilty of treason or a treasonable felony against the country may forfeit his citizenship.
6. Disloyalty to the new country: where the citizen shows disloyalty, or trades with or aids an enemy country, especially in time of war, his citizenship may be withdrawn.
7. Retention of former citizenship: in a country that does not permit dual citizenship, a person who fails to renounce the citizenship of his original country may lose the acquired one.

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Equality Before the Law under the Rule of Law: Theory and Practice

One of the main principles of the Rule of Law, as expounded by A.V. Dicey, is equality before the law. This means that all persons, whether rich or poor, high or low, ruler or ruled, are subject to the same law and the same courts, and that no one is above the law. In theory, everyone should receive equal treatment and equal protection.

However, in practice this equality is not always true, for the following reasons:

1. Immunity of certain officials: Heads of state, governors and diplomats enjoy legal immunity from prosecution while in office, so they cannot be treated the same as ordinary citizens.
2. Influence of wealth: The rich can hire the best lawyers, meet bail conditions and pay fines, while the poor may be convicted or remain in detention simply because they cannot afford good defence.
3. Corruption in the justice system: Bribery of police, prosecutors and even judges means that justice may go to the highest bidder rather than to the deserving.
4. Special courts and privileges: Certain groups such as the military and public officers are sometimes tried under special laws or tribunals, not the ordinary courts.
5. Discrimination: Prejudice based on class, religion, ethnicity, sex or political affiliation may lead to unequal treatment of citizens.
6. Ignorance and illiteracy: Many poor and illiterate citizens do not know their rights and cannot enforce them, unlike the educated and powerful.
7. Delay in the administration of justice: Congested courts and slow procedures work against the weak, while the powerful can manipulate or speed up the process.

Conclusion: Although the Rule of Law proclaims that all men are equal before the law, factors such as official immunity, wealth, corruption, discrimination and ignorance make this equality more of an ideal than a reality in practice. The principle nevertheless remains an important standard which governments should strive to attain.

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Ways the Executive May Interfere with the Independence of the Judiciary

The independence of the judiciary means that judges should decide cases freely, without fear or favour. However, the executive arm can undermine this independence in the following ways:

1. Appointment of judges: Where the executive appoints judges, it may appoint only loyalists or party sympathisers who will favour the government in their judgements.
2. Control over promotion and transfer: The executive can use promotion, transfer or posting to reward compliant judges and punish or frustrate independent-minded ones.
3. Control of judicial finance: By controlling the budget and salaries of the judiciary, the executive can starve the courts of funds and make judges financially dependent and vulnerable to pressure.
4. Removal or threat of removal: The power to discipline, suspend or remove judges can be abused to intimidate them into giving favourable decisions.
5. Refusal to enforce court judgements: Since the executive controls the police and coercive machinery, it may refuse to obey or enforce judgements that go against it, thereby weakening the courts.
6. Use of executive orders, decrees and ouster clauses: The executive may issue decrees or laws with ouster clauses that remove certain matters from the jurisdiction of the courts.
7. Intimidation and harassment: Judges may be threatened, arrested, detained or their homes invaded by security agents to force them to decide cases in the government's favour.
8. Prerogative of mercy: By pardoning offenders convicted by the courts, the executive can nullify the decisions of the judiciary.

To protect judicial independence, judges' salaries should be charged on the Consolidated Revenue Fund, their tenure and conditions of service guaranteed, and appointments made through a Judicial Service Commission.

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Confederal Features of the Organisation of African Unity (O.A.U)

A confederation is a loose union of independent, sovereign states which come together for common purposes but retain their sovereignty and can withdraw at will. The O.A.U (established in 1963) resembled a confederal arrangement in the following ways:

1. Retention of sovereignty by members: Each member state remained fully independent and sovereign; the O.A.U had no power to override the internal authority of any member.
2. Voluntary membership and right of withdrawal: States joined freely and could withdraw from the organisation whenever they wished, as in a confederation.
3. Equality of member states: All members, large or small, were treated as equals and each had one vote in the Assembly of Heads of State.
4. Weak central authority: The O.A.U had no strong central government that could impose its will on members; its decisions and resolutions were largely recommendations.
5. Non-interference in internal affairs: The Charter upheld respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each state and non-interference in their internal affairs, a hallmark of confederations.
6. Decisions by consensus/agreement: Major decisions depended on the agreement and cooperation of member states rather than on binding central legislation.
7. No common army, currency or citizenship: Each state kept its own armed forces, currency and citizenship, and there was no central taxation of citizens.
8. Reliance on member contributions: The organisation depended on the voluntary financial contributions of members, which they could withhold.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)

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Comparison of British Indirect Rule and French Assimilation

Both were colonial policies of administration in West Africa, but they differed sharply in aim and method.

Similarities: Both were designed to serve the interests of the colonial power, both exploited the colonies economically, and both ultimately kept political control in the hands of the Europeans. Assimilation later proved too costly and was modified into the policy of Association.

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Effects of the 1964 General Elections on Political Developments in Nigeria

The federal elections of December 1964 were the first to be conducted by Nigerians after independence, and they had far-reaching effects on the political life of the country:

1. Deepened political rivalry and polarisation: The contest between the Nigerian National Alliance (NNA) and the United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) sharpened regional, ethnic and party divisions in the country.
2. Widespread malpractice and violence: The elections were marked by rigging, intimidation, thuggery and irregularities, which discredited the electoral process and democracy.
3. Election boycott and constitutional crisis: UPGA boycotted the elections in some areas, and President Nnamdi Azikiwe initially hesitated to call on Prime Minister Balewa to form a government, creating a serious constitutional crisis.
4. Loss of public confidence in government: The manipulation of the elections destroyed the people's faith in the ability of politicians to conduct free and fair elections.
5. Crisis in the Western Region: It contributed to the disputed Western Region election of 1965 and the breakdown of law and order known as "Operation Wetie".
6. Paved the way for military intervention: The disorder, violence and loss of confidence created the atmosphere that led directly to the first military coup of January 1966 and the collapse of the First Republic.

Conclusion: The 1964 elections weakened democratic institutions, exposed the dangers of ethnic and regional politics, and set the stage for the military takeover that ended the First Republic.

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Ways Traditional Rulers Controlled Their Subjects in Pre-Colonial West Africa

Before colonial rule, kings, chiefs and elders maintained order and controlled their subjects through the following means:

1. Use of religion and belief in the gods: Rulers were often regarded as divine or as intermediaries between the people and the gods and ancestors. Fear of the gods and of ancestral punishment made subjects obedient.
2. Enactment and enforcement of laws: The ruler and his council made laws and customs which the people were expected to obey, and breaches were punished.
3. Administration of justice: Traditional rulers settled disputes and tried offenders in their courts, imposing fines, banishment or other penalties to enforce order.
4. Control of land: As custodians of communal land, rulers allocated land to subjects, giving them economic power and control over the people.
5. Use of force and the army: Rulers maintained warriors, palace guards and age-grades who could be used to enforce decisions, defend the community and punish rebels.
6. Use of secret societies and cults: Institutions such as the Ogboni, Oro and masquerade cults enforced decisions and instilled fear and obedience.
7. Taxation and tribute: Rulers collected taxes, tributes and levies, and the obligation to pay reinforced their authority over subjects.
8. Reward and title system: The power to confer titles, chieftaincies and honours secured the loyalty and cooperation of prominent subjects.
9. Council of chiefs and elders: The ruler governed with a council whose members helped to transmit decisions to, and control, the various sections of the community.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)

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Measures to Make Public Corporations More Efficient

Public corporations are government-owned business organisations set up to provide essential services. Many suffer from inefficiency, and the following measures can improve their performance:

1. Appointment of qualified and experienced managers: Board members and managers should be appointed on merit and competence rather than on political or ethnic grounds.
2. Adequate and prudent funding: The corporations should be well financed and their funds properly managed and accounted for to avoid waste and shortage of working capital.
3. Reduction of political interference: Government should allow the corporations reasonable autonomy in day-to-day management and appointments so that decisions are guided by business considerations.
4. Regular auditing and accountability: Their accounts should be regularly audited and managers held accountable to check corruption, fraud and mismanagement.
5. Motivation of workers: Staff should be well trained, adequately paid and rewarded for good performance to boost productivity and morale.
6. Commercialisation or partial privatisation: Some corporations can be commercialised or partly privatised so that they operate on sound business principles and become profit-conscious.
7. Provision of modern equipment and technology: They should be equipped with up-to-date machinery and technology to improve the quality and quantity of their services.
8. Effective supervision and control: There should be adequate supervision by the supervising ministry and periodic review of performance without stifling autonomy.

(Any relevant measures are acceptable.)

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The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), 1923

The NNDP was founded in 1923 by Herbert Macaulay, and is regarded as the first genuine political party in Nigeria. It was formed to take advantage of the elective principle introduced by the Clifford Constitution of 1922, which allowed the election of a few Africans into the Legislative Council for Lagos and Calabar.

(a) Objectives of the NNDP

1. To contest and win the elective seats provided by the Clifford Constitution for Lagos and Calabar.
2. To promote the political education and awareness of Nigerians and encourage participation in government.
3. To press for greater African representation in the Legislative Council and in the running of the country.
4. To secure the welfare and interests of the people, and to work for eventual self-government within the British Empire.
5. To promote the development of commerce, education and municipal (local) government in Lagos.
6. To defend the rights of Nigerians and provide leadership against colonial excesses.

(b) Achievements of the NNDP

1. It won all the three elective seats for Lagos in the 1923, 1928 and 1933 elections, dominating Lagos politics for over a decade.
2. It became the first organised political party in Nigeria and set the pattern for later party politics.
3. It awakened political consciousness and mobilised Nigerians to participate in the political process.
4. It provided effective opposition to and criticism of colonial policies in the Legislative Council.
5. It established the Lagos Daily News, which it used to educate the public and propagate its views.
6. It contributed to the growth of nationalism and trained many Nigerians in the art of politics.

(Any relevant points are acceptable.)