WAEC SSCE - Government - 2009

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A system of government in which governmental positions are acquired through popular elections is known as republicanism. In such a system, the people have the right to choose their representatives through a democratic process, usually through free and fair elections. These representatives then hold positions in government and are responsible for making decisions on behalf of the people. The elected officials are accountable to the people who elected them, and they are expected to act in the best interests of the citizens they represent. This system is commonly used in modern democracies around the world.

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Residing in an area for a specified period of years is one of the basic conditions to acquire citizenship through "naturalization". Naturalization is the process by which a foreign national becomes a citizen of another country. The requirements for naturalization vary from country to country, but a common requirement is that the applicant must have resided in the country for a certain period of time, typically several years. The purpose of this requirement is to ensure that the applicant has integrated into the society and culture of the country, and has a commitment to their new country of residence. It also allows the government to conduct background checks and ensure that the applicant meets other requirements such as language proficiency and passing a citizenship test. Therefore, the correct option to select in this scenario would be "naturalization".

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A court can declare any action of a local government that is outside its area of jurisdiction as "ultra vires". "Ultra vires" is a Latin term that means "beyond the powers". In the context of government, it refers to actions or decisions that are taken by a government body that go beyond the legal authority granted to them by law. In the case of a local government, they are given a specific set of powers by state or federal law, and any action that falls outside of these powers is considered to be ultra vires. If a court determines that a local government has acted ultra vires, it can declare the action to be invalid and unenforceable. Therefore, the correct option to select in this scenario would be "ultra vires".

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The practice of voting in absentia through an authorized representative is called voting by proxy. Voting by proxy allows a voter to designate someone else to vote on their behalf. This is often used in situations where the voter is unable to attend the polling station in person, such as due to illness, disability, or travel. To vote by proxy, the voter must first apply for a proxy vote and provide details of the person who will be voting on their behalf. This person must be a registered voter themselves and cannot act as a proxy for more than two people at the same election. Voting by proxy is a way to ensure that everyone has the opportunity to participate in the democratic process, regardless of their circumstances. It can also be a way to increase voter turnout, as it allows people who might otherwise be unable to vote to have their voice heard. In summary, the practice of voting in absentia through an authorized representative is called voting by proxy. This allows people who are unable to attend the polling station in person to designate someone else to vote on their behalf. This helps to ensure that everyone has the opportunity to participate in the democratic process, and can increase voter turnout.

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The non-involvement of civil servants in partisan politics is related to neutrality. Neutrality means that civil servants should remain unbiased and not take sides in political matters. This is important because civil servants are responsible for implementing government policies and programs, and if they are partisan, they may show favoritism or discrimination towards certain individuals or groups. By remaining neutral, civil servants can maintain their professionalism and ensure that public resources are used fairly and efficiently.

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Nationalism in British West Africa aimed at gaining independence from British colonial rule. Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the importance of national identity and unity. In the case of British West Africa, nationalism emerged as a response to British colonialism, which had imposed its authority over the region through military conquest and economic domination. Nationalists in British West Africa believed that the region should be governed by its own people, rather than by British administrators. They called for an end to colonial rule and the establishment of independent, self-governing states. Nationalism in British West Africa was driven by a number of factors, including a desire for political and economic self-determination, a rejection of foreign domination, and a commitment to the preservation of African cultures and traditions. Nationalists organized themselves into political parties and movements, and worked to mobilize popular support for their cause. They engaged in protests, demonstrations, and other forms of activism, and sought to raise awareness of the injustices of colonialism. In summary, nationalism in British West Africa aimed at gaining independence from British colonial rule. It was driven by a desire for political and economic self-determination, a rejection of foreign domination, and a commitment to the preservation of African cultures and traditions.

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During the colonial period in British West Africa, laws made by the legislative council were called "ordinances". An ordinance is a law or regulation made by a local authority or government, especially a colonial government, with limited powers and validity. These ordinances were usually made by the colonial governor and his appointed legislative council, which acted as the parliament for the colony. The ordinances were used to regulate and control various aspects of colonial life, including trade, taxation, labor, and social behavior.

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Germany and Italy practiced a totalitarian system of government before the Second World War. Totalitarianism is a form of government where the state has total control over all aspects of people's lives. In Germany, Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party established a totalitarian regime after he became the Chancellor in 1933. Hitler abolished democracy and established a dictatorship, where he had complete control over the government, the military, and the media. He also used propaganda to control the minds of the people and suppress dissent. In Italy, Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party established a similar totalitarian regime in 1922. Mussolini abolished democratic institutions, suppressed political opposition, and established a one-party state. He also used propaganda and censorship to control the media and suppress dissent. In contrast, Britain and France were democratic countries before the Second World War. The United States and Canada also had democratic systems of government, with the exception of the internment of Japanese Americans during the war. Turkey and India were not major players in the Second World War, but both countries had democratic systems of government at the time.

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Nazism was primarily practiced in Germany under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. Nazism is a political ideology that is characterized by totalitarianism, nationalism, racism, and anti-Semitism. The Nazi Party came to power in Germany in 1933, and under Hitler's leadership, they began implementing their fascist policies, which included the persecution and murder of millions of Jews, as well as other minority groups, during the Holocaust. While fascist and authoritarian regimes did exist in other countries during the 20th century, Nazism as an ideology and a political movement was uniquely associated with Germany under Adolf Hitler's leadership. Therefore, Britain under Churchill, the United States under Woodrow Wilson, and Spain under General Franco did not practice Nazism as their primary political ideology.

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The head of the judicial arm of government is known as the "Chief Justice". The Chief Justice is the highest ranking judge in the country, responsible for leading the judiciary and overseeing its operations. In some countries, the Chief Justice may also have a role in appointing judges and other judicial officers, as well as in setting judicial policies and procedures. The role of the Chief Justice is crucial in ensuring the independence and integrity of the judicial system, as well as in upholding the rule of law.

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Diplomatic immunity is a limitation to the doctrine of the rule of law. Diplomatic immunity is a concept in international law that provides immunity to diplomats from prosecution or lawsuits in their host country. This means that diplomats are not subject to the laws of the host country, which can be seen as a violation of the rule of law. The rule of law requires that everyone, including government officials and diplomats, should be subject to the law. Therefore, diplomatic immunity can be seen as a limitation to the rule of law, as it provides a certain class of people with immunity from prosecution, which undermines the principle of equality before the law.

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"Intra-party conflicts" do not usually influence the foreign policy of a country. Foreign policy is the set of strategies and principles that a country uses to interact with other countries and international organizations. It is shaped by a variety of factors, including historical and cultural matters, ideological factors, and economic factors. Intra-party conflicts refer to disagreements or conflicts within a political party. While they can have significant impacts on domestic policies and political processes, they generally do not directly affect a country's foreign policy decisions. Therefore, the correct option to select in this scenario would be "Intra-party conflicts".

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Republicanism is generally considered to be the system of government that is more responsible to public opinion. In a republic, the power to govern is held by elected representatives who are chosen by the people through a democratic process. These representatives are accountable to the citizens and are expected to act in their best interests. In this system, the people have a say in the decisions that affect their lives and can hold their representatives accountable if they don't perform well. On the other hand, in an oligarchy, a small group of people hold power and make decisions on behalf of the larger population. In a plutocracy, the wealthy hold power and influence decision-making. In a monarchy, power is held by a single individual who inherits their position and is not accountable to the people. Therefore, republicanism is considered to be more responsive to public opinion because it is based on the principle of popular sovereignty, where the people hold the ultimate power to govern.

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In a feudal system, the social hierarchy consists of lords, vassals, and serfs. The subordinate class of people in this system are the serfs. Serfs were typically peasants who were bound to the land owned by the lord of the manor. They were not free to leave without permission and were required to provide labor and a portion of their crops to the lord. In exchange, they were provided with protection and the use of a small plot of land to farm for themselves. The serfs were considered the lowest class in the feudal system, and they had very limited rights and freedoms.

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A constitution whose procedure for amendment is the same as that of making an ordinary law is referred to as a "flexible constitution". A constitution is a set of rules and principles that define the structure and operation of a government. The procedure for amending a constitution determines how changes can be made to these rules and principles. In a flexible constitution, the procedure for amending the constitution is the same as that of making an ordinary law. This means that changes to the constitution can be made through the normal legislative process, without any special requirements or procedures. This is in contrast to a rigid or inflexible constitution, where the procedure for amending the constitution is more difficult and requires a higher level of consensus or agreement among the government and its citizens. Therefore, the correct option to select in this scenario would be "a flexible constitution".

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Vibrant opposition parties in parliament help to strengthen democracy. This is because they provide an alternative voice and check to the ruling party, ensuring that government actions and policies are debated and scrutinized. This promotes transparency and accountability in governance, as the ruling party is held responsible for its actions. Opposition parties also serve as a mechanism for representing the diverse interests of citizens who may not be represented in the ruling party. Additionally, opposition parties provide a platform for citizens to express their grievances and concerns, which can be addressed through policy-making and implementation. All these contribute to strengthening democracy and ensuring that the interests of citizens are protected.

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A true representative government is one that allows devolution of governmental powers. This means that power is shared between the central government and other levels of government, such as state or local governments. A true representative government also allows for the election of officials to represent the people, such as members of parliament or congress. In a representative government, the elected officials are responsible for making decisions on behalf of the people they represent. The government must be accountable to the people and must act in the best interests of the people. A true representative government must also be transparent, meaning that decisions are made in an open and public manner. A true representative government does not necessarily recognize unlimited franchise, which means allowing all citizens to vote regardless of certain qualifications such as age or property ownership. It also does not necessarily observe customs and traditions, as those may change over time or be different among different groups of people. Finally, a true representative government does not resist freedom of movement, as this is a basic human right.

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The system of government where the head of state and the head of government are two different individuals is called a "parliamentary system." In this system, the head of state (often a monarch or a president) is a ceremonial figurehead who represents the unity and continuity of the nation. The head of government (usually a prime minister or a chancellor) is responsible for running the day-to-day affairs of the government and implementing policies. The parliamentary system is often found in countries with a democratic government and a constitutional monarchy.

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Totalitarianism implies the control of government by a dictator. In a totalitarian government, the leader, or dictator, has absolute control over all aspects of the government and society. The dictator typically does not share power with any other individuals or groups and often suppresses opposition and dissent through violence or intimidation. Totalitarian governments often rely on propaganda, censorship, and the control of information to maintain power and control over society. They may also use secret police and surveillance to monitor and control the population. Totalitarianism can be contrasted with democracy, where power is distributed among different branches of government and individuals have the right to free speech, assembly, and political participation. Totalitarianism is often associated with human rights abuses and the suppression of individual freedoms. Overall, the control of government by a dictator is a defining characteristic of totalitarianism, which is a form of government that places absolute power and control in the hands of a single individual.

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The pre-Second World War constitutions of West African colonies had a demerit which was the domination of the Legislative Council by official members. This means that the colonial government appointed its own officials to the Legislative Council and gave them more power than the elected or nominated members. This made it difficult for the Council to represent the views and interests of the local people, as the colonial officials were primarily interested in serving the interests of the colonial government. As a result, the pre-Second World War constitutions of West African colonies were not fully representative of the people and did not provide a proper avenue for democratic participation.

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A common language is one of the attributes of a nation. A nation is a group of people who share a common culture, history, and territory. Having a common language is important because it allows people within a nation to communicate effectively with each other, and also helps to reinforce the sense of identity and unity among the people. A nation may or may not have its own government, but a common language is an important factor in defining and strengthening its national identity.

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The first military coup d'état in West Africa was staged in Togo. A coup d'état is a sudden and illegal overthrow of a government, usually by a group of military officials. In Togo, the coup was led by a group of young army officers in 1963, who overthrew the country's first president, Sylvanus Olympio. This event marked the first military coup in West Africa and set a precedent for similar coups in the region in the following decades. While coups and military interventions have occurred in other West African countries such as Niger, Nigeria, and The Gambia, Togo was the first country in the region to experience a military coup d'état.

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Government as a process or art of governing refers to the activities involved in making and enforcing laws in a state. It includes the actions and decisions of elected officials and other individuals who hold power and authority in a society, such as the judiciary, police, and administrative agencies. The process of governing involves creating and enforcing laws and policies that regulate the behavior of individuals and institutions within a society, as well as providing services and resources to meet the needs of the people. It involves negotiating and making decisions about important issues such as economic development, public health, and national security. While voting at general elections, orders of the judiciary and police, and activities of political parties and pressure groups are all important components of the government process, they are not the essence of what government is. Rather, they are various means or mechanisms by which government operates and exercises its power.

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The United Nations Secretary-General is appointed for a "five-year term". The Secretary-General is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, which is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the United Nations. The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The appointment is subject to the approval of the majority of the members of the General Assembly. The Secretary-General's term can be renewed for another five-year term. Therefore, the correct option to select in this scenario would be "five-year term".

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The highest organ of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is the "Authority of Heads of State and Government". The Authority is made up of the Presidents or Heads of State of the ECOWAS member countries, and it provides the highest level of governance and decision-making in the organization. The Authority meets at least once a year and is responsible for the overall direction, coordination, and monitoring of ECOWAS policies and programs. It is also responsible for making major decisions, such as the adoption of new protocols, the appointment of the Executive Secretary of the Secretariat, and the establishment of new ECOWAS institutions. Therefore, the correct option to select in this scenario would be the "Authority of Heads of State and Government".

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Equality before the law is a principle of the "Rule of Law". The principle states that all individuals, regardless of their social status, race, gender, or any other characteristic, should be subject to the same laws and penalties as others. This principle ensures that everyone is treated fairly and impartially under the law, and that no one is above the law. The rule of law is a fundamental concept in democratic societies, and it serves as a safeguard against abuse of power and arbitrary actions by the government or other individuals in positions of authority.

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A system whereby there is only one legislative chamber parliament is referred to as a unicameral legislature. In a unicameral legislature, there is only one house of parliament, which is responsible for making and passing laws. This is different from a bi-cameral legislature, where there are two separate houses of parliament, usually a lower and an upper chamber. The unicameral system is often found in smaller countries, or those with a less complex political system. It is believed to be more efficient and less expensive than a bicameral system, as it eliminates the need for two separate sets of lawmakers, staff, and facilities.

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The principle of checks and balances is aimed at preventing any organ of government from becoming too powerful. This principle is an important aspect of a democratic system of government where power is distributed among different branches or organs of government such as the executive, legislative, and judiciary. By creating a system of checks and balances, each branch is able to exercise some control over the others, thereby preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful or dominating the others. This helps to ensure that there is a balance of power and that no one branch can abuse its authority or violate the rights of citizens. Thus, the principle of checks and balances is an important safeguard against the abuse of power and a key feature of a democratic system of government.

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Civil rights refer to the basic rights and freedoms that are granted to individuals in a society. These rights are typically protected by law and apply to all individuals within the society, regardless of their citizenship or immigration status. However, the extent to which non-citizens are able to enjoy civil rights may vary depending on the country's laws and policies. In general, citizens of a country are the primary beneficiaries of civil rights. This is because they are recognized as having full membership and legal standing within the society. However, non-citizens, such as aliens or refugees, may also enjoy some civil rights, such as freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and the right to a fair trial. In some cases, non-citizens may be granted additional protections under international law, such as the right to seek asylum or protection from persecution. Prisoners, on the other hand, may have their civil rights limited or restricted due to their status as convicted criminals. While they still maintain some basic rights, such as protection from cruel and unusual punishment, their freedom of movement and other liberties may be curtailed. In summary, civil rights are generally enjoyed by all individuals within a society, regardless of their citizenship or immigration status, with the exception of prisoners whose rights may be limited due to their status as criminals.

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A federal system of government is adopted in a state with marked inequalities among the component units. A federal system of government is one in which power is divided between a central government and a number of constituent political units. In this system, each unit is granted a degree of autonomy and retains its own separate identity, while still being subject to the overall authority of the central government. One of the main reasons why a state might adopt a federal system of government is to address marked inequalities among its constituent units. This could take the form of economic disparities, where some regions of the state are much wealthier than others. It could also involve social, cultural, or political differences between different groups within the state. By adopting a federal system of government, a state can ensure that each constituent unit has a say in how it is governed and can address the specific needs and concerns of its own population. This can help to reduce tensions and conflicts between different groups within the state, and promote a sense of unity and common purpose. In summary, a federal system of government is adopted in a state with marked inequalities among the component units. By adopting such a system, the state can ensure that each constituent unit has a degree of autonomy and can address the specific needs and concerns of its own population, which can help to reduce tensions and promote unity.

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The Executive carries out the implementation of government policies. The Executive is responsible for enforcing and executing laws, regulations and policies that have been passed by the legislature. This includes overseeing the work of various government agencies, managing the budget and ensuring that policies are implemented effectively. The Executive is headed by the President or Prime Minister depending on the type of government in place, and they are responsible for ensuring that the government is run effectively and efficiently.

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The principle of separation of powers is emphasized among the three organs of government in a presidential system. Separation of powers is a principle of government in which power is divided among different branches or organs of government to avoid concentration of power in any one branch or organ. In a presidential system, the three branches of government are the executive branch (headed by the president), the legislative branch (which makes laws), and the judicial branch (which interprets the laws). Each branch has its own powers and responsibilities, and they are designed to be independent of each other. This means that the president cannot interfere with the legislative or judicial branches, and vice versa. The separation of powers ensures that no one branch becomes too powerful, which can lead to tyranny or dictatorship. In contrast, centralization refers to a concentration of power in one central authority, which is not consistent with the principle of separation of powers. Delegated legislation refers to the power of a legislative body to delegate authority to other bodies or officials to make laws, which is not specific to a presidential system. Political participation refers to the role of citizens in government, which is also not specific to a presidential system.

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The function of an electoral commission is the registration of voters for election. An electoral commission is a body responsible for conducting free and fair elections in a country. One of the primary functions of an electoral commission is to ensure that all eligible voters are registered to vote. This involves creating a register of eligible voters and ensuring that people are registered to vote in the correct electoral district. The registration of voters is crucial to the electoral process, as it ensures that only eligible voters are allowed to cast their votes. By registering voters, the electoral commission is able to maintain the integrity of the electoral process and prevent voter fraud. In addition to the registration of voters, an electoral commission may also have other functions, such as overseeing the conduct of political parties and candidates, monitoring campaign finance, and ensuring that election results are accurately reported. However, educating the public on economic policies, sharing of political power among parties, and provision of essential services are not functions of an electoral commission. These are the responsibilities of other government bodies and agencies. In summary, the function of an electoral commission is the registration of voters for election, which is crucial to maintaining the integrity of the electoral process and preventing voter fraud.

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A feature of pressure groups is that members have similar interests. Pressure groups are organizations that aim to influence government policies and decisions on behalf of their members or a particular cause or interest group. They may represent a wide range of interests, such as environmental protection, human rights, or business interests. One of the defining features of pressure groups is that they bring together individuals or organizations that share a common interest or goal. Members of pressure groups may come from different backgrounds, but they are united by their shared concerns and desire to influence policy in a particular direction. By working together, members of pressure groups can increase their influence and leverage in the political process. They may engage in various activities such as lobbying, public campaigns, and legal action to promote their interests and achieve their goals. Overall, the shared interests of members is a key feature of pressure groups, which are organizations that seek to influence government policy on behalf of a particular cause or interest group.

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The principle which requires members of the executive to resign when a governmental proposal is defeated in the parliament is known as "collective responsibility". This means that all members of the executive, including the prime minister, are collectively responsible for the actions of the government. If a proposal is defeated in parliament, it is seen as a vote of no confidence in the government, and the entire executive must resign. This principle helps to ensure accountability and transparency in government, as it holds the executive accountable to the legislature.

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The policy of Assimilation was a French colonial policy which aimed at making the colonies an integral part of France by imposing French language, culture and values on the people. One of the main criticisms against the policy was that it did not recognize African culture as good enough and sought to replace it with French culture. This meant that the people were forced to abandon their own traditions and adopt French ways of life. This was seen as a form of cultural imperialism which did not respect the diversity of African cultures. The policy also ignored the educated elite who were seen as a threat to French control and excluded traditional rulers from governance, which further alienated the people from the colonial administration.

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The type of government that is headed by a king or queen is called a monarchical government. In a monarchical government, the monarch is the head of state and has significant power and influence over the country's governance. The monarch may have different titles, such as king or queen, emperor or empress, depending on the country's traditions and history. In a monarchical government, the monarch may have varying degrees of power, depending on the country's political system. In some countries, the monarch is a ceremonial figurehead with no real political power, while in others, the monarch has significant authority over government decisions. Monarchies can be hereditary, where the monarch's position is passed down through the family, or elective, where the monarch is chosen by a group of people, such as a council of nobles or a parliament. Overall, a monarchical government is characterized by the concentration of power in the hands of a single individual, the monarch, who holds significant influence over the country's governance and decision-making processes.

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Measuring public opinion becomes highly expensive when a "public opinion poll is conducted". Public opinion polls involve surveying a representative sample of the population to gather information about their views on a particular issue or topic. The cost of conducting a poll can vary depending on factors such as the size of the sample, the method of data collection, and the number of questions asked. In order to obtain a reliable and accurate result, public opinion polls must be conducted with high-quality methods and by trained professionals. These measures can increase the cost of conducting a poll. Therefore, the correct option to select in this scenario would be "public opinion poll is conducted".

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The European colonisation of West Africa in the nineteenth century was driven by several motives, mainly economic, political and strategic. The main reasons include the following.

1. Economic (search for raw materials and markets): The Industrial Revolution created a demand for raw materials such as palm oil, cocoa, groundnut, cotton and rubber, and for markets to sell European manufactured goods. Colonies guaranteed both.
2. Search for areas for investment: European capitalists wanted new regions where surplus capital could be invested profitably in mines, plantations and trade.
3. National prestige and rivalry: European nations such as Britain, France and Germany competed for colonies as a mark of national greatness and power, leading to the scramble for and partition of Africa.
4. Strategic and political considerations: Some territories were seized to protect trade routes, secure existing colonies and gain military or naval advantage over rival powers.
5. Desire to spread Christianity and Western civilisation: The wish to abolish the slave trade, spread the Christian religion and impose European culture and civilisation also encouraged colonisation.

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(a) Meaning of legitimacy in government

Legitimacy is the quality of being lawful, rightful and generally accepted. In government it refers to the extent to which the citizens accept and recognise the government and its authority as rightful and binding, and are willing to obey its laws and directives voluntarily. A legitimate government is one that has acquired power through accepted and lawful means and therefore commands the loyalty and support of the people.

(b) Five ways of acquiring legitimacy

1. Through free and fair elections: A government that wins power in a genuine, popular election is regarded as legitimate because it reflects the will of the people.
2. Through inheritance or tradition: In monarchies, authority is acquired by hereditary succession, and long-standing tradition confers legitimacy.
3. Through a valid constitution: A government that comes to power and rules in accordance with the provisions of an accepted constitution enjoys legitimacy.
4. Through referendum or plebiscite: When the people approve a leader, policy or arrangement by direct popular vote, legitimacy is conferred.
5. Through charismatic leadership and popular support: A leader with exceptional personal qualities who wins the confidence and voluntary obedience of the people acquires legitimacy.
6. Through legality and the rule of law: Operating strictly within the law and respecting due process earns a government acceptance and legitimacy.

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Under the 1963 Republican Constitution of Nigeria, the President was a ceremonial Head of State (the real executive powers being exercised by the Prime Minister and cabinet). The President's functions were mainly formal and included the following.

1. Head of State: He was the ceremonial head of state and the symbol of national unity, representing the country at home and abroad.
2. Appointment of the Prime Minister: He appointed as Prime Minister the leader of the political party that commanded a majority in the House of Representatives.
3. Formal appointment of ministers and public officers: On the advice of the Prime Minister, he appointed ministers, judges and other principal officers of state.
4. Summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament: He performed the formal acts of opening, adjourning and dissolving the Parliament, usually on the advice of the Prime Minister.
5. Assent to bills: He gave formal assent to bills passed by Parliament before they became law.
6. Commander-in-Chief (ceremonial): He was the titular commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
7. Prerogative of mercy: He could grant pardon, reprieve or commutation of sentence to convicted persons, on advice.
8. Receiving and appointing envoys: He received foreign ambassadors and formally appointed Nigeria's diplomatic representatives.

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The first military intervention in Nigerian politics took place on 15 January 1966, when a group of army officers overthrew the First Republic. The causes included the following.

1. Widespread political corruption: Politicians were seen as corrupt and self-serving, enriching themselves at public expense, which discredited the civilian government.
2. Rigging and electoral malpractices: The disputed 1964 federal election and the 1965 Western Region election, marked by massive rigging, thuggery and violence, eroded confidence in the democratic process.
3. Political instability and lawlessness: Breakdown of law and order, especially the violence and killings in the Western Region (the "wild-wild West"), created chaos that the government could not control.
4. Ethnic and regional rivalry: Bitter competition and mistrust among the major ethnic groups and regions weakened national unity and made stable government impossible.
5. Census controversy: The disputed 1962 and 1963 population census, seen as manipulated for political advantage, deepened regional suspicion and conflict.
6. Weak and ineffective leadership: The civilian leaders were seen as unable to solve the nation's problems or curb the excesses of politicians, creating a vacuum the military claimed to fill.
7. Nepotism and tribalism: Favouritism in appointments and the sharing of national resources along ethnic lines caused resentment.

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British colonial administration in West Africa, particularly the system of indirect rule, suffered from several weaknesses. These include the following.

1. Imposition of alien rule and neglect of traditional systems: Where suitable traditional rulers did not exist, as among the Igbo and other segmentary societies, the British created artificial chiefs (warrant chiefs) who were rejected by the people, causing resentment and revolts such as the Aba Women's Riot of 1929.
2. Undemocratic nature: The administration was authoritarian and did not allow the people meaningful participation in their own government; decisions were imposed from above.
3. Undermining of traditional authority: By making chiefs answerable to colonial officers rather than to their people, the system weakened and corrupted the authority and respect traditionally enjoyed by natural rulers.
4. Neglect of social and economic development: The administration concentrated on exploiting raw materials and collecting taxes while neglecting education, health, industry and infrastructure for the benefit of the people.
5. Divide and rule and lack of uniformity: The policy of divide and rule sowed disunity, and the system was applied inconsistently across different regions, deepening divisions.

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The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) was formed in 1934 (originally as the Lagos Youth Movement) and became one of the earliest nationalist organisations in Nigeria. Its objectives included the following.

1. Promotion of national unity: It sought to unite the various ethnic groups and peoples of Nigeria into one nation with a common sense of purpose, cutting across tribal lines.
2. Struggle for self-government: It aimed at achieving greater political participation and eventual self-government for Nigerians, opposing colonial domination.
3. Improvement of education: It campaigned for better and expanded educational opportunities for Nigerians, including protest against the inferior status of Yaba Higher College.
4. Advancement of the economic and social welfare of Nigerians: It fought against discrimination and for improved economic and social conditions and greater opportunities for indigenes in commerce and the civil service.
5. Creation of political awareness: It aimed to awaken political consciousness among Nigerians and mobilise them for the nationalist cause.

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(a) Concurrent functions in a federation

Concurrent functions are the powers and responsibilities listed on the concurrent legislative list, over which both the central (federal) government and the component (state or regional) governments are empowered to legislate and act. Both levels of government share responsibility in these areas, but where a state law conflicts with a federal law on the same matter, the federal law prevails and the state law becomes void to the extent of the inconsistency (the doctrine of covering the field). Common examples include education, health, agriculture, roads and industrial development.

(b) Five features of a confederal system of government

1. Weak central government: The central authority is deliberately weak and derives its powers from the component states, which remain sovereign.
2. Component units retain sovereignty: Each member state keeps its independence and can withdraw from the union at will (right of secession).
3. Right of nullification: A member state can reject or refuse to implement a decision or law of the central body that it considers against its interest.
4. Central government has no direct power over citizens: It relates to the citizens only through the component states, not directly.
5. Loose association: The union is a loose alliance held together mainly for limited common purposes such as defence and foreign affairs.
6. Financial dependence of the centre: The central government depends on contributions from the member states for its revenue rather than taxing citizens directly.

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The Oyomesi was the council of state of the pre-colonial Oyo empire, made up of seven hereditary kingmakers headed by the Bashorun. It served as a powerful check on the Alaafin (the king). Its functions included the following.

1. Selection and installation of a new Alaafin: On the death of an Alaafin, the Oyomesi chose a successor from the royal family and performed the rites of installation.
2. Check on the power of the Alaafin: It acted as a check on the Alaafin, preventing him from becoming a tyrant, and could compel an erring or unpopular Alaafin to commit suicide by presenting him with an empty calabash or parrot's eggs.
3. Advisory function: The Oyomesi advised the Alaafin on important matters of state and assisted him in the day-to-day administration of the empire.
4. Legislative function: It participated in making laws and formulating policies for the good governance of the empire.
5. Judicial function: It served as a high court, settling serious disputes and trying important cases within the empire.
6. Religious and ceremonial functions: The Oyomesi took part in the performance of important state religious rites and festivals.
7. Declaration of war and peace: Together with the Alaafin, it deliberated on and decided matters of war and peace.

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An unwritten constitution is one whose principles and rules are not codified into a single document but are found scattered in conventions, customs, judicial decisions, statutes and historical documents, as in Britain. Its main disadvantages are as follows.

1. Uncertainty and vagueness: Because the rules are not gathered in one document, it is often difficult to know exactly what the constitution says, leading to confusion and disputes.
2. Easy to manipulate: Since much of it rests on unwritten conventions, an unscrupulous ruler can easily bend, ignore or manipulate the rules to serve selfish ends, which may pave the way for dictatorship.
3. Difficulty of reference: The absence of a single authoritative document makes it hard for citizens, lawyers and courts to consult and cite the constitution.
4. Not suitable for a heterogeneous or federal state: It cannot clearly define and share powers between levels of government, so it is unsuitable for federations or societies with diverse ethnic groups such as Nigeria.
5. Lack of protection for fundamental rights: The rights of citizens are not clearly and firmly entrenched, making them vulnerable to erosion by government.
6. Difficult for new or developing states to adopt: It depends on long-established traditions and mature political conventions which young nations do not yet possess.

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The United Nations Organisation (UNO), established in 1945 to maintain international peace and cooperation, suffers from several weaknesses. These include the following.

1. The veto power: Any one of the five permanent members of the Security Council (USA, Russia, China, Britain and France) can veto a decision, thereby frustrating the will of the majority and paralysing action.
2. Lack of a standing army: The UN has no permanent army of its own and depends on member states to contribute troops, which weakens its ability to enforce its decisions promptly.
3. Financial dependence: It relies on the contributions of member states, and the failure or reluctance of members to pay their dues leaves it perpetually short of funds.
4. Domination by powerful states: The organisation is often controlled and manipulated by the big and wealthy powers to serve their own interests, at the expense of weaker nations.
5. Lack of coercive/enforcement power over sovereign states: It cannot compel sovereign states to obey its resolutions, so many resolutions are simply ignored.
6. Inability to prevent all wars: Despite its aims, it has failed to prevent many wars and conflicts around the world, exposing the limits of its peace-keeping role.