WAEC SSCE - Geography - 2013

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The section of the external structure of the earth that supports life is the biosphere. It is the part of the earth where living organisms exist. It includes all living things and the areas of the earth where they exist, such as the air, water, and land. The biosphere is the only place where life is known to exist, and it is a relatively thin layer on the earth's surface, extending from about 6 km below the ocean surface to about 10 km above it.

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One of the factors that account for the slow rate of industrial development in Tropical Africa is the inadequate capital. Capital is the money and resources needed to start and sustain a business, and without it, industrial development cannot happen at a significant pace. Inadequate capital can prevent businesses from investing in modern equipment and technology, hiring skilled labor, and expanding their operations. Furthermore, inadequate capital can also prevent businesses from accessing the resources they need to grow, such as loans and investment capital. Thus, without adequate capital, the growth and development of industries in Tropical Africa can be significantly hindered.

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The most extensive vegetation belt in Africa is the Savannah. Savannah is a grassland with scattered trees that are typically found in tropical and subtropical regions. It covers a large portion of the African continent, stretching from the west coast of Senegal and Mauritania to the east coast of Ethiopia, and from the south of the Sahara desert to the north of the Kalahari desert. The Savannah vegetation belt is extensive because it is adapted to the climate of the region. The climate in Africa is generally warm and dry, with a long dry season and a short rainy season. The Savannah biome has adapted to these conditions by developing deep roots to access water, and by being able to survive long periods without rainfall. The Savannah biome is also home to a diverse range of wildlife, including large grazing animals such as zebras and giraffes, as well as predators such as lions and cheetahs. This diversity of wildlife is due to the abundance of food that is available in the Savannah, which is in turn supported by the grasses and trees that make up the biome. Overall, the Savannah biome is the most extensive vegetation belt in Africa due to its adaptability to the climate, its ability to support a diverse range of wildlife, and its importance as a source of food and livelihood for many people in the region.

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Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have undergone a transformation due to heat, pressure, and/or chemical activity. Based on the given options, the examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss and quartzite. Basalt and gabbro are examples of igneous rocks while granite and gabbro are a combination of igneous and intrusive rocks. Gneiss and basalt are a combination of metamorphic and igneous rocks.

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Population density is the number of individuals in a particular area, usually expressed as the number of persons per square kilometer of land. It is a measure of the concentration of people living in a given area and helps to provide insight into how crowded or sparsely populated a region is. A high population density suggests that there are many people living in a relatively small area, while a low population density indicates that the area has fewer people living in it.

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The youthful stage of a river is characterized by its erosive activity and its attempt to establish its course. As a result, one feature commonly found in this stage is interlocking spurs. These are ridges of land that project into the river valley and are gradually eroded away as the river flows. Interlocking spurs are formed because the river is not yet powerful enough to cut through them, so it has to wind its way around them, creating a zigzag pattern.

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The question is asking to identify the exception among the listed factors that are favorable for lumbering in Africa. The first three options all suggest reasons why lumbering in Africa might be favorable - high demand for tropical timber, presence of many economic trees, and high demand for fuelwood. These factors suggest that there is a market for lumber products, and that there are abundant resources available for harvesting. The last option, "inaccessible equatorial forest," is the exception. This suggests that there are challenges to accessing and harvesting lumber from the equatorial forest, which could make lumbering less favorable in these areas. Factors that could contribute to inaccessibility might include terrain, climate, or other environmental factors. Therefore, the correct answer is "inaccessible equatorial forest," as it is the only factor that does not contribute to favorable conditions for lumbering in Africa.

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Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is extracted from the earth's surface through a method called drilling. This method involves drilling deep wells into the earth's surface to reach the layer of rock that contains the oil reserves. Once the well reaches the oil reservoir, the oil is pumped out using various techniques, such as pressure or suction. Drilling is the primary method used for extracting petroleum in Africa, as it is in most other regions of the world where oil reserves are found. Other methods such as crushing, adit, or open cast are not suitable for extracting petroleum as it is usually located deep underground and requires specialized equipment and techniques to extract it.

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The local wind that blows in West Africa between November and February is called the Harmattan. Harmattan is a dry and dusty northeasterly trade wind that blows from the Sahara Desert across West Africa towards the Gulf of Guinea. The wind is usually cold and can cause the temperature to drop significantly. It also carries a lot of dust and sand, which can reduce visibility and cause respiratory problems for people and animals. The Harmattan wind is an important weather phenomenon in West Africa, and its arrival is often eagerly anticipated for its cooling effect on the region.

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Hail, fog, dew, and frost are all forms of precipitation. Precipitation is any form of water that falls from the atmosphere and reaches the ground. This includes rain, snow, sleet, hail, dew, and frost. Hail is formed when frozen water droplets are lifted by strong updrafts in thunderstorms, while fog is formed when water vapor in the air condenses close to the ground. Dew forms when moisture condenses on cool surfaces, and frost forms when the temperature drops below freezing and water vapor in the air freezes directly onto surfaces.

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The name of the volcanic rock which often forms the root of fold mountains is called a "Batholith". A batholith is a large mass of intrusive igneous rock formed from cooled magma deep in the earth's crust. When the batholith pushes up towards the surface, it may encounter and cause the overlying rock layers to fold and uplift, resulting in the formation of fold mountains. Batholiths are typically made up of granite, a coarse-grained igneous rock composed mainly of feldspar, quartz, and mica.

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The most important weathering process in Karst regions is carbonation. Karst regions are areas that are characterized by soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in rainwater, forming carbonic acid. This carbonic acid reacts with the soluble rocks, causing them to dissolve and form sinkholes, caves, and other distinctive landforms commonly found in Karst regions. Hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of minerals by water, oxidation involves the combination of minerals with oxygen, and hydration is the process of minerals absorbing water molecules. While these processes can contribute to weathering in Karst regions, carbonation is considered to be the most important process due to the prevalence of soluble rocks in these areas.

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The correct answer is "weathering." Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken down and disintegrated into smaller pieces due to physical and chemical means in their original location or "in situ." Physical weathering includes the breakdown of rocks through mechanical forces such as temperature changes, wind, water, and plant roots. Chemical weathering, on the other hand, involves chemical reactions that alter the chemical composition of the rocks. Together, these processes contribute to the continuous breakdown of rocks, eventually leading to the formation of soil.

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The correct answer is "pollution". Pollution refers to the introduction of harmful substances into the environment that cause negative effects on living organisms and their surroundings. This can be caused by human activities such as industrialization, transportation, and improper waste disposal. Pollution can take different forms such as air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution. Examples of harmful substances that cause pollution include carbon monoxide, lead, and nitrogen oxides, among others. Pollution has negative effects on the environment, human health, and the economy, and efforts are made to reduce and prevent it.

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African rivers exhibit all of the following characteristics except for "that they have great depths." Most African rivers have their sources in the interior highlands and flow towards the coast or interior basins. Due to the topography of the land, many African rivers have rapids and waterfalls on their courses. African rivers also exhibit seasonal variations in water volume, with some rivers experiencing a very high volume of water during the wet season and a very low volume of water during the dry season. However, African rivers are not known for their great depths. In general, African rivers are shallow and wide, with the exception of a few deep gorges and canyons. This is partly because the rivers have a relatively low gradient and slow velocity, which limits their ability to erode the river bed and deepen the channel.

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Solar energy warms the Earth's surface through the process of radiation. The sun emits electromagnetic waves, including visible light, which travel through space and reach the Earth. When these waves strike the Earth's surface, they are absorbed and converted into heat energy, which warms the air and the ground. This process of heat transfer from one object to another without physical contact is known as radiation. So, the correct option is "Radiation".

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The characteristics described suggest an Equatorial climate. In this type of climate, temperatures are generally high throughout the year, and rainfall is abundant and evenly distributed throughout the year. The double maxima in rainfall refer to two periods of the year when rainfall is particularly high. In contrast, the other climate types listed have different characteristics. A Monsoon climate is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons, with high rainfall during the wet season. A Warm Temperate climate has mild winters and warm summers with rainfall distributed throughout the year. A Mediterranean climate has mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers.

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Road transport provides door-to-door services. This is because road transport can reach almost any location, including remote areas and neighborhoods, and can deliver goods or people directly to their final destination. On the other hand, rail transport, ocean transport, and air transport typically require additional modes of transportation, such as trucks or buses, to reach their final destination. Therefore, among the given options, road transport is the only mode that provides door-to-door services.

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Rift valleys are formed through the process of faulting. Faulting occurs when there is tensional stress in the Earth's crust, causing it to crack and split apart. The split forms two separate blocks of crust, with one side moving downwards and the other side moving upwards, creating a steep-sided valley in between. This process is often associated with the movement of tectonic plates, where the plates move apart and create a rift zone in the Earth's crust. Over time, erosion and other geological processes may modify the shape of the rift valley, but the initial formation is due to faulting.

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Treated sewage, industrial waste, oil spillage, and fishing with chemicals are all sources of pollution. The question is asking which one of the options does not cause pollution. The answer is treated sewage. Treated sewage refers to the wastewater that has undergone a treatment process to remove pollutants and contaminants before being discharged into the environment. While untreated sewage can cause pollution, treated sewage is not considered a significant source of pollution as the treatment process removes most of the pollutants.

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A disadvantage of high population density is unemployment. When there is a high population density, there are more people competing for limited resources, such as jobs. This leads to a high rate of unemployment, as the number of people seeking employment is higher than the available job opportunities. This can lead to poverty, social unrest, and a strain on the economy. High population density can also lead to increased pressure on social amenities, such as water supply, housing, and transportation, which can further exacerbate the problem of unemployment.

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The factor of industrial location that explains the establishment of cement industries near areas of limestone deposit is "source of raw materials." Limestone is the primary raw material used in cement production, and it is necessary for the cement industry to be located close to limestone deposits to minimize transportation costs and ensure a consistent supply of raw materials. Therefore, proximity to the source of raw materials is a crucial factor in industrial location decisions for cement industries.

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To calculate the distance between two places on the same longitude, we need to find the length of the arc of the Earth's circumference between the two latitudes. The Earth's circumference is approximately 40,000 km. Therefore, each degree of latitude represents approximately 40,000 km/360 = 111.11 km. The distance between 11°N and 5°S is equal to the sum of the distance between the equator and 11°N plus the distance between the equator and 5°S. The distance between the equator and 11°N is 11° x 111.11 km/degree = 1,222.21 km. The distance between the equator and 5°S is 5° x 111.11 km/degree = 555.55 km. Therefore, the total distance between the two places is 1,222.21 km + 555.55 km = 1,777.76 km. Therefore, the answer is closest to 1,776 km.

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Humidity and barometer are matched with the wrong measuring instrument. A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure, while humidity is measured using a hygrometer. Humidity refers to the amount of moisture present in the air, and it is usually expressed as relative humidity. A hygrometer measures the amount of water vapor in the air to calculate the relative humidity. On the other hand, a wind vane is used to measure the direction of the wind, while a thermometer is used to measure temperature. A raingauge is used to measure the amount of rainfall in a particular area. These instruments are correctly matched with their respective elements of weather and climate.

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Most warm ocean currents flow from the Equator. This is because the equator receives more solar radiation than other regions, which leads to warming of the seawater. As a result, the seawater becomes less dense and rises to the surface. The rising warm water then flows away from the equator in the form of ocean currents. These currents carry heat from the equatorial region to other parts of the world, affecting the climate and weather patterns in those regions.

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The first stage in the process of lumbering is the identification of suitable species of trees. This involves the selection of trees that have the desired characteristics such as straight trunks, appropriate diameter and height, and wood quality. It is important to identify the right species of trees to ensure that the lumber produced is of high quality and meets the needs of the market. Once the suitable species of trees are identified, the process of felling the trees can begin.

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To solve this problem, we need to know the time difference between the two locations. Since Nigeria is 15 degrees east of the Prime Meridian (0 degrees), and town Y is 30 degrees west of the Prime Meridian, we can calculate the time difference as follows: 15 degrees east x 4 minutes/degree = 60 minutes (or 1 hour) ahead of GMT 30 degrees west x 4 minutes/degree = 120 minutes (or 2 hours) behind GMT So, the time difference between the two locations is 3 hours (2 hours + 1 hour). If it is 7.00 p.m. in town Y (30oW), then we need to add 3 hours to get the local time in Nigeria (15oE). 7.00 p.m. + 3 hours = 10.00 p.m. Therefore, the local time in Nigeria (15oE) when the time is 7.00 p.m. in town Y (30oW) is 10.00 p.m.

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(a) Five factors responsible for the population distribution in West Africa

1. Relief: lowlands, plains and river valleys are densely settled because they are easy to farm and build on, while rugged highlands are sparsely peopled.
2. Climate and rainfall: areas with reliable, moderate rainfall attract dense settlement, while the very dry Sahel and desert margins and the excessively wet swamps repel people.
3. Soil fertility: fertile alluvial and volcanic soils (for example the cocoa and food-crop belts) carry dense farming populations; poor, leached soils carry few people.
4. Economic opportunities: mining areas, industrial and commercial towns and ports (Lagos, Accra, Dakar) draw large populations by offering jobs.
5. Historical and social factors: long-established kingdoms, trade routes and safe, disease-free areas built up dense populations, while slave-raiding and disease (tsetse fly, river blindness) once emptied other areas.

Also acceptable: availability of water supply and good transport routes.

(b) Five advantages of low population density in some parts of West Africa

• Less pressure on land, so farmland, grazing and building space are readily available.
• Adequate food and resources per person, reducing the risk of shortage.
• Less environmental degradation such as deforestation, overgrazing, erosion and pollution.
• Reduced pressure on social services (schools, hospitals, water), so the few people are better served.
• Room for expansion and development, including large farms, ranching, forest reserves and future settlement, with less unemployment and congestion.

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(a) Outline map of Nigeria

Key: The shaded north-eastern area is the Chad Basin. The shaded south-western upland area is the Western Highlands (Yoruba Plateau). Maiduguri is an important town in the Chad Basin.

(b) Geography of the Western Highlands

(i) Relief

• The Western Highlands, also called the Yoruba Plateau, are in south-western Nigeria.
• They are mainly underlain by ancient Basement Complex rocks.
• The area is an undulating upland, generally about 300 to 600 m above sea level, rising above the adjoining lowlands.
• It consists of groups of hills, ridges, isolated residual hills and dissected valleys. Some hills are steep-sided.
• Notable hills include the Idanre, Apata, Epinmi and Kukuru hills. A few summits, such as parts of the Idanre and Ilesa hills, exceed 1,000 m.

(ii) Economic activities

• Farmers cultivate food crops such as yam, cassava, maize and vegetables.
• Cash crops grown include cocoa, kolanut, oil palm and rubber.
• Livestock rearing is practised, especially in the more open grassland areas to the north.
• Mining and quarrying occur, including marble at Igbetti, gold around Ilesa and granite quarrying.
• There are industries such as textile production, tobacco processing, rubber processing and other small-scale manufacturing.
• Local crafts include tie-and-dye, weaving and basket making.
• Commercial activities are important in towns, while scenic hills and cultural sites encourage tourism.

(iii) Problems of development

• The hilly and dissected terrain makes the construction of roads, railways, buildings and other infrastructure difficult and costly.
• Removal of vegetation and cultivation on slopes promote soil erosion.
• Many soils are lateritic, leached and relatively infertile, requiring the use of manure or fertiliser for sustained farming.
• High population density, poor physical planning and urban congestion put pressure on land and services.
• Flooding may occur along river valleys in built-up areas.
• Land-tenure problems can hinder large-scale farming and investment.
• Rural-urban migration reduces the labour force available for agricultural production in some rural communities.
• Pollution from industries, quarrying and urban waste creates environmental problems.

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(a) Definition of international trade

International trade is the exchange of goods and services between one country and another across national boundaries. It consists of imports (goods bought from other countries) and exports (goods sold to other countries).

(b) Five benefits of international trade

1. Provision of goods not produced at home: a country obtains raw materials, machinery and manufactured goods it cannot produce itself.
2. Earning of foreign exchange from exports, which is used to pay for imports and finance development.
3. Wider market for surplus produce: countries can sell their surplus goods abroad, encouraging greater production and specialisation.
4. Promotion of specialisation and efficiency: each country concentrates on what it produces best (comparative advantage), raising output and quality.
5. Fostering of friendship, cooperation and transfer of technology and skills between trading nations, and cheaper goods for consumers.

(c) Four factors that limit trade between African countries and the USA

• Similarity of exports: Africa mostly exports primary raw materials and the USA wants finished goods, so African countries have little the USA needs and cannot easily afford US manufactures.
• Long distance and high transport costs between the two, which raise the price of traded goods.
• Trade barriers such as high tariffs, quotas and strict quality standards imposed by the USA on African products.
• Weak currencies and shortage of foreign exchange in Africa, together with poor manufacturing capacity, limiting how much can be bought from the USA.

Also acceptable: differences in language/business practice, and unstable political conditions in some African countries.

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(a) Outline map of Africa showing rivers and dams

Key: River Nile, River Volta and River Zambezi are shown. The Aswan High Dam is on the River Nile in Egypt, and the Akosombo Dam is on the River Volta in Ghana.

(b) Benefits of hydroelectric power to the people of Africa

1. It supplies electricity for domestic uses such as lighting, cooking, refrigeration and entertainment, thereby improving the standard of living.
2. It provides energy for industries, mines, offices and processing plants, thus promoting industrial development.
3. It creates employment during the construction, operation and maintenance of dams and power stations.
4. It earns revenue for governments through the sale of electricity, including electricity exported to neighbouring countries.
5. It conserves foreign exchange that would have been used to import petroleum products or fuel for thermal power stations.
6. It encourages the growth of towns and other settlements around power stations and industrial areas.
7. It provides a relatively cheap and renewable source of energy and reduces air pollution from fuel-burning power stations.

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(a) Sketch map of Africa showing gold-mining areas in South Africa

Key: ● Gold-mining area. The two areas shown are Witwatersrand and the Orange Free State (Welkom).

(b) Shaft (underground) method of mining gold

1. A vertical shaft is sunk from the surface down to the gold-bearing reef.
2. Horizontal tunnels are driven from the shaft along the gold seam.
3. Explosives are used to break up the gold-bearing rock.
4. The broken rock is loaded into trucks or skips and raised to the surface through the shaft.
5. At the processing plant, the ore is crushed and treated with chemicals to separate the gold from the waste materials.
6. The gold obtained is then smelted and refined into bullion.

(c) Importance of gold mining to South Africa

1. It earns foreign exchange through the export of gold.
2. It provides revenue to the government through taxes, royalties and export duties.
3. It provides employment and income for miners and workers in related industries.
4. It promotes the development of infrastructure and social amenities, such as roads, railways, housing, schools and hospitals, in mining areas.

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(a) Five physical factors that hinder the development of railway transportation in Nigeria

1. Rivers and swamps: the many rivers (Niger, Benue) and the Niger Delta swamps require expensive bridges and embankments, raising construction costs.
2. Highlands and rugged relief: the Jos Plateau, the Western and Eastern uplands and inselbergs force costly cuttings, tunnels and detours.
3. Dense tropical forest in the south, which is difficult and expensive to clear for the line.
4. Heavy rainfall and flooding in the wet south, which erodes embankments, washes out tracks and disrupts services.
5. Loose and shifting sands and drought in the far north, together with laterite/hard rock in places, which make track-laying and maintenance difficult.

(b) Five ways transportation contributes to the economic development of Nigeria

• Movement of raw materials and finished goods between farms, mines, factories, markets and ports, promoting industry and trade.
• Opening up of the interior: roads, rail and waterways make remote farming and mining areas accessible for production and settlement.
• Encouragement of agriculture: farmers move perishable produce quickly to urban markets, raising incomes.
• Employment and revenue: the transport sector provides many jobs and generates government revenue.
• National integration and growth of towns: transport links different parts of the country, promotes tourism and helps towns grow at junctions and ports.

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(a) Three advantages of each mode of transport

(i) Rail transport

• It can carry large, heavy and bulky loads (minerals, timber, farm produce) at low cost over land.
• It is fast and reliable over medium and long land distances and runs to a fixed timetable.
• It can reach interior areas away from the coast and is little affected by traffic on roads.

(ii) Water transport

• It is the cheapest means of moving very bulky, heavy goods over long distances.
• It needs no expensive track to be built on rivers, lakes and the sea (a natural highway).
• It can carry very large cargoes such as crude oil, grain and machinery in a single voyage.

(b) Four reasons why some African countries have not been able to sustain their rail transport

1. Shortage of capital to maintain the lines, buy new locomotives and coaches and provide spare parts.
2. Obsolete and worn-out equipment leading to frequent breakdowns, derailments and unreliable services.
3. Poor management and inadequate skilled personnel to run and repair the system efficiently.
4. Competition from road transport, which is more flexible and door-to-door, drawing passengers and goods away from rail.

Also acceptable: difficult relief and narrow-gauge/single-track lines, vandalism of rail property, and low, uneconomic traffic.

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(a) Sketch map of Nigeria

Key: ● Town; shaded area = industrial zone; ★ = vehicle-assembly industry.

The two industrial zones shown are:

1. Lagos industrial zone, with Lagos as the town.
2. Kano industrial zone, with Kano as the town.
3. A vehicle-assembly plant is shown in the Lagos industrial zone.

(b) Factors favouring the location of a vehicle-assembly industry in Lagos

1. Good port facilities: Lagos has an international seaport through which completely knocked-down vehicle parts, machinery and spare parts can be imported conveniently and at relatively low transport cost.
2. Large market and good transport network: Lagos has a very large population and high demand for vehicles. Its roads, rail links, airport, banks and other support services also make distribution and business operations easier.

(c) Problems facing manufacturing industries in Nigeria

1. Erratic power supply: Industries spend heavily on generators and fuel when public electricity supply is unreliable.
2. Inadequate capital and costly loans: High interest rates and difficulty in obtaining credit limit the purchase of machinery and expansion.
3. Dependence on imported raw materials and spare parts: Foreign-exchange shortages and high import costs raise production costs.
4. Poor transport and other infrastructure: Bad roads, inadequate water supply and poor facilities delay the movement of inputs and finished goods.

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(a) Four functions of an urban centre

1. Administrative function: it serves as a centre of government, housing offices, courts and headquarters.
2. Commercial function: it is a market and trading centre with shops, banks and business houses.
3. Industrial function: it is a place of manufacturing where factories and processing plants are sited.
4. Service function: it provides education, health, transport and recreation for itself and the surrounding region.

Also acceptable: cultural/religious, defence, mining, port or route-junction functions.

(b) Four problems of urbanization

• Housing shortage and growth of slums as people crowd into the city faster than housing can be built.
• Traffic congestion caused by too many vehicles and inadequate roads.
• Unemployment and crime as rural migrants fail to find jobs.
• Pressure on social services and pollution: water, electricity, schools, hospitals and waste disposal cannot cope, and the environment becomes polluted.

(c) Possible solutions to two of the problems

• Housing shortage: government and private developers should build more low-cost housing estates and high-rise flats, and provide site-and-service schemes and mortgage loans.
• Traffic congestion: construct more roads, flyovers and mass-transit systems (buses, rail), and encourage decentralisation of workplaces to reduce commuter pressure.