WAEC SSCE - Government - 2014

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The head of the Commonwealth of Nations is the Queen of England. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organization made up of 54 countries that were mostly former British colonies. The head of the Commonwealth is a symbolic role that represents the unity of the member nations. The Queen of England has held this position since she became the queen in 1952, and she is the longest-serving head of the Commonwealth. As the head of the Commonwealth, the Queen does not have any political power or authority over the member nations. Instead, her role is to promote unity, cooperation, and friendship among the member countries. She also meets with leaders of the member nations and attends Commonwealth events and conferences.

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A feature of a rigid constitution is that it requires special amendment procedures. This means that changing the constitution is not an easy task and cannot be done by a simple majority vote or through regular legislative procedures. Instead, special procedures, such as a higher threshold for approval or a constitutional convention, may be required to make amendments to the constitution. The purpose of a rigid constitution is to ensure that the basic principles and values of the constitution are protected from arbitrary changes by those in power. By making it difficult to amend the constitution, it ensures that any changes made to the constitution are done deliberately and after careful consideration. In contrast, a flexible or "unwritten" constitution, such as that of the United Kingdom, can be amended through ordinary legislative procedures. This makes it easier to adapt to changing circumstances but also means that the constitution may be more susceptible to the whims of the government in power.

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A pressure group formed only by teachers is an occupational group. An occupational group is a pressure group that represents the interests of people who share a common profession or occupation. In this case, the group is made up solely of teachers and would therefore advocate for policies and changes that benefit teachers and their profession. Occupational groups are one type of interest group, which are organizations that seek to influence public policy and promote their specific interests. Other types of interest groups include economic groups, which represent businesses and industries, and promotional groups, which advocate for particular causes or issues. By organizing as an occupational group, teachers can leverage their collective influence to push for policies that benefit their profession, such as higher salaries, better working conditions, and increased funding for education. Through lobbying, public campaigns, and other forms of advocacy, occupational groups can play an important role in shaping public policy and promoting the interests of their members.

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Nazism was introduced by Adolf Hitler. He was a German politician and leader of the Nazi Party. Hitler rose to power in 1933 and became the Chancellor of Germany. He believed in the superiority of the Aryan race and the need for German expansion and dominance. Hitler's ideology led to the Holocaust, in which millions of Jews and other minorities were systematically murdered. Nazi Germany also initiated World War II, which resulted in the deaths of millions of people. Ultimately, Hitler's leadership and ideology brought about destruction and devastation on a massive scale.

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The question is asking for the exception among the merits of separation of powers. The answer would be "abuse of power" as it is a disadvantage or a demerit of separation of powers rather than a merit. Separation of powers refers to the division of government functions and powers into three branches: the legislative, executive, and judiciary. The purpose of this separation is to prevent any one branch from having too much power or influence over the others, thereby ensuring a balanced and stable political system. The other listed options such as freedom and liberty, stable political system, and absence of dominance are all merits of separation of powers.

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In a federal system of government, education and health are examples of concurrent powers. This means that both the federal government and state or local governments have the power to make laws and policies in these areas. While the federal government may set national standards or provide funding for education and health programs, the state or local governments have the flexibility to design and implement their own programs to meet the needs of their citizens. The allocation of responsibilities for these areas of governance varies between different federal systems, but in general, they are considered concurrent powers.

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Small territories is a factor for the adoption of a unitary system of government in some West African countries. A unitary system of government is a political system in which power is centralized in the national government, with subordinate units such as states or provinces having only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate to them. In West Africa, some countries have adopted a unitary system of government instead of a federal system, which distributes power more evenly between the national government and the states or provinces. One of the reasons why some West African countries have adopted a unitary system of government is that they have relatively small territories. In a small country, it may be more efficient and effective to have a centralized government that can make decisions and implement policies quickly and easily. Additionally, a unitary system may be less expensive to operate than a federal system, which requires separate governments and administrative structures at the national and state or provincial levels. Therefore, small territories is a factor for the adoption of a unitary system of government in some West African countries. These countries have determined that a centralized government is the most effective and efficient way to govern their relatively small territories.

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Russia is a permanent member of the Security Council of the United Nations Organization (UNO). This means that they have a permanent seat at the council and have veto power over any substantive resolution. The other permanent members are the United States, China, France, and the United Kingdom. Together, these five countries are often referred to as the P5.

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A party manifesto is an important document that outlines the policies, programs, and vision of a political party. It serves to guide the party in its decision-making processes, evaluate the party's performance, and attract people to join and support the party. However, one thing that a party manifesto does not do is limit choice. In fact, it is meant to broaden the choices available to voters by providing them with a clear understanding of what a party stands for and what it intends to do if elected. Therefore, a party manifesto is not intended to limit choice but rather to inform and empower voters to make informed decisions.

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Mozambique is a Commonwealth member that has no colonial link with the United Kingdom. Mozambique was admitted to the Commonwealth in 1995, becoming the first member that had no historical ties with Britain. The Commonwealth is a political association of 54 member states, mostly former territories of the British Empire, who work together on issues of mutual concern, such as democracy, human rights, and economic development.

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In limited franchise, restrictions on voting can be based on property ownership. This means that only people who own a certain amount of property or land are allowed to vote. This type of voting restriction was common in many countries during the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was often used as a way to limit the political power of working-class people and to ensure that only wealthy landowners had a say in government. The rationale behind this restriction was that property ownership was seen as a sign of responsibility and stability, and therefore, property owners were deemed more suitable for making decisions about the future of the country. However, limited franchise based on property ownership was criticized for being undemocratic and unfair, as it excluded a large portion of the population from political participation, even though they may have had a stake in the outcome of elections and policies.

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Tanzania is a country in Africa that practiced socialism. Socialism is an economic and political system where the means of production and distribution are owned and controlled by the state or by the community as a whole, rather than by private individuals. Tanzania, under the leadership of its first President, Julius Nyerere, adopted a policy of socialism in the 1960s and 1970s. Nyerere believed that socialism was the best way to ensure that Tanzania's resources were used for the benefit of all its citizens, rather than being controlled by a small elite. He implemented policies that aimed to promote economic growth and development while reducing inequality and poverty. During this period, Tanzania nationalized many industries, including banks, insurance companies, and transportation. The government also implemented policies that encouraged collective farming and reduced the influence of foreign companies in the country. In summary, Tanzania is a country in Africa that practiced socialism under the leadership of Julius Nyerere in the 1960s and 1970s. The policies implemented during this period aimed to promote economic growth and development while reducing inequality and poverty by nationalizing industries and promoting collective farming.

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Auditing the accounts of public corporations is a type of financial control. It involves an independent and impartial expert reviewing the financial records and transactions of a public corporation to ensure that they are accurate, complete, and in compliance with relevant laws and regulations. This helps to provide transparency and accountability for the use of public funds and promotes trust in the organization.

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The French policy of Assimilation was a colonial policy that aimed to assimilate the indigenous peoples of French colonies into French culture and society. It involved the imposition of French language, laws, and customs on the colonized people. However, the policy did not recognize the chieftaincy institution, which was an important political structure in many African societies. The policy also did not have limited education, as it aimed to educate the colonized people in French language, culture, and values, with the goal of making them French citizens. The policy was also not indigent, as it aimed to eradicate the colonized people's culture and replace it with French culture. Therefore, the feature of the French policy of Assimilation that is not correct is the recognition of the chieftaincy institution.

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Representative government is alternatively called "indirect democracy". This is because in a representative government, the people do not make laws and decisions directly themselves. Instead, they elect representatives who make decisions and laws on their behalf. This is different from "classical democracy", where people participate directly in making laws and decisions. "Rule of law" refers to the principle that everyone, including the government, is subject to the same laws. "Separation of powers" refers to the division of government into different branches with different responsibilities and powers.

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Coalition government can be defined as parties coming together to form a government. In a situation where no single political party has the majority to form a government on its own, two or more parties may decide to form a coalition government. This involves the parties agreeing to work together, often by sharing ministerial positions and agreeing on a common policy agenda or manifesto. The aim of a coalition government is to create a stable government and ensure that a broad range of views are represented in the decision-making process.

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The collection of rates is a source of revenue for local authorities. Local authorities are responsible for providing basic public services such as waste management, road maintenance, public transportation, and other community services in their area. To finance these services, local authorities collect rates from the residents and businesses in their jurisdiction. Rates are a form of property tax that is assessed based on the value of the property. The revenue generated from the collection of rates is then used to fund the provision of these essential services to the local community.

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The option that is not a merit of checks and balances is "encourages the use of veto power". Checks and balances are mechanisms designed to limit the exercise of power by separating the different branches of government and assigning specific functions to each branch. This helps prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and abusing its power. Respect for human rights, prevention of dictatorship, and prevention of excessive use of power are all merits of checks and balances. However, the encouragement of veto power is not necessarily a merit of checks and balances, as the use of veto power can sometimes lead to gridlock and prevent progress.

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The United Nations Organization (UNO) came into existence in 1945. It was created in the aftermath of World War II with the aim of promoting international cooperation and preventing future conflicts. Its formation was based on the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and the peaceful resolution of disputes between nations. The UNO has since become a global organization with a wide range of objectives, including the promotion of human rights, the provision of humanitarian aid, and the maintenance of international peace and security.

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The popularity of the governor is not a factor that promotes a democratic electoral system. A democratic electoral system is one that allows citizens to vote freely for the candidates of their choice in free and fair elections. The legitimacy of such an electoral system depends on several factors, such as political consciousness, periodic election, and up-to-date electoral register. Political consciousness means that citizens are aware of their rights and responsibilities as voters and are actively engaged in the electoral process. Periodic election means that elections are held regularly, usually every few years, to ensure that citizens have a say in who governs them. An up-to-date electoral register means that the list of eligible voters is accurate and up-to-date, so that everyone who is entitled to vote can do so. However, the popularity of the governor is not a factor that promotes a democratic electoral system. While popularity may be a factor in an election, it should not be the sole determinant of who is elected. A democratic electoral system should be based on free and fair elections, not on the popularity of an individual candidate. Therefore, the popularity of the governor is not a factor that promotes a democratic electoral system.

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Political parties typically generate revenue from various sources, including payment of dues, donations, and fund raising. However, custom duties are not a source of revenue for political parties. Custom duties are taxes imposed on imported goods and are collected by the government, not political parties. While political parties may support or oppose certain trade policies that affect custom duties, they do not directly benefit from or receive revenue from custom duties. Payment of dues, donations, and fund raising, on the other hand, are all common sources of revenue for political parties. Payment of dues typically comes from party members, while donations and fund raising involve soliciting money from individuals, corporations, or other organizations that support the party's goals and agenda.

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The laws of the pre-colonial African system were mostly unwritten. In traditional African societies, laws and customs were passed down orally from generation to generation through storytelling, proverbs, and other forms of oral tradition. These unwritten laws were deeply rooted in the cultural and social values of each society, and were enforced by traditional rulers, religious leaders, and community elders. The laws covered a wide range of issues, from property rights and inheritance to marriage and family disputes, and were based on principles of fairness, justice, and community harmony. Although the laws were unwritten, they were still considered to be binding and enforceable, and were respected by members of the community. Disputes were often resolved through mediation and negotiation, rather than through formal legal proceedings. With the advent of colonialism, many African societies were forced to adopt Western-style legal systems that were based on written laws and codified statutes. However, the legacy of the pre-colonial African legal system continues to influence many aspects of African culture and society, and is still recognized and respected in many communities.

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The ECOWAS Fund for Co-operation, Compensation and Development is located in Togo. ECOWAS stands for the Economic Community of West African States, a regional organization of 15 West African countries. The fund was established in 1975 as a means of promoting economic and social development in the region. The headquarters of the ECOWAS Commission, the main governing body of the organization, is located in Abuja, Nigeria. However, the ECOWAS Fund for Co-operation, Compensation and Development is specifically located in Lomé, Togo. The fund provides financial assistance to member states for various development projects, including infrastructure, agriculture, and healthcare. It is funded by contributions from member states and other donors, and is managed by a board of directors appointed by the ECOWAS Commission. Overall, the ECOWAS Fund for Co-operation, Compensation and Development plays an important role in supporting economic growth and development in West Africa, and its location in Togo reflects the organization's commitment to working closely with member states to promote regional integration and cooperation.

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A presidential election is an example of a general election. A general election is an election held to choose representatives or leaders for an entire country or region, rather than for a specific locality or constituency. In a presidential election, citizens of a country vote to elect their president or head of state. The president is typically responsible for representing the country on the global stage and making decisions on behalf of the entire nation. Therefore, a presidential election is an example of a general election because it is held at the national level to elect the leader of an entire country.

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The aim of pressure groups is to influence government decisions, policies and actions in order to achieve certain goals or objectives. Pressure groups employ various tactics, such as lobbying, demonstrations, public campaigns, media outreach and legal action, to exert pressure on government and policy-makers. They also engage in educating their members and the public about their goals, issues and concerns. Contesting elections is not a typical aim of pressure groups. Pressure groups do not seek to gain political power through elections or hold elected positions, but rather focus on influencing policies and decisions from the outside. Therefore, the answer is "Contesting election".

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The Legislature has the right to change the laws of the country. The Legislature is the body of government responsible for making laws. It is made up of elected representatives who are chosen by the people. The Legislature can propose, debate, and pass bills that become laws. Laws are rules that govern how people behave and interact with one another. They are created to promote the common good and ensure that everyone is treated fairly. The Legislature has the power to change these laws if they are not working or if new laws are needed to address emerging issues. In contrast, the Judiciary is responsible for interpreting and enforcing the laws that are made by the Legislature. The Ombudsman is an independent body that investigates complaints against government agencies and officials. In summary, the Legislature has the right to change the laws of the country. This body of government is responsible for making laws that promote the common good and ensure that everyone is treated fairly. The Judiciary is responsible for interpreting and enforcing these laws, while the Ombudsman investigates complaints against government agencies and officials.

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The factor that does not promote democratic electoral system is the popularity of the governor. Democratic electoral systems are characterized by periodic elections, political consciousness of the citizens, and an up-to-date electoral register. The popularity of a governor may influence the voting patterns of citizens, but it is not a necessary factor for promoting a democratic electoral system. The essence of democratic elections is to allow for the free and fair expression of the people's will without undue influence or manipulation. Thus, the popularity of an individual candidate should not be a determining factor in the success of democratic elections.

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Neutrality in the civil service means that civil servants should be loyal to the government and non-partisan. This means that they should be committed to serving the government of the day, regardless of their personal political beliefs or affiliations. It also means that civil servants should not be influenced by partisan considerations when carrying out their duties, and should not engage in political activities. The idea of neutrality is based on the principle that the civil service should be a professional and impartial body, dedicated to serving the public interest, rather than any particular political party or interest group.

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Statutes are laws that are passed by the parliament. A statute is a formal written law that has been approved by the legislative branch of government, which is typically a parliament or a congress. Statutes can cover a wide range of subjects, from criminal law and civil law to taxation and regulation of business activities. Once a statute is passed by the parliament, it becomes part of the legal code of a country or jurisdiction and is enforceable by the courts. Statutes are one of the main sources of law in most legal systems, and they play a key role in shaping the legal framework of a society.

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Red-tapism in the civil service is a product of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy refers to a system of government in which the decision-making process is carried out by a complex network of officials and departments. In such a system, there are often many layers of rules, regulations, and procedures that must be followed, and this can lead to delays, inefficiencies, and a lack of flexibility in decision-making. Red-tapism specifically refers to excessive and unnecessary bureaucratic procedures, which can slow down or even block the implementation of policies or decisions. This can be caused by a variety of factors such as an overly complicated bureaucracy, lack of clear guidelines or procedures, and a rigid adherence to rules and regulations. Therefore, red-tapism in the civil service is a product of bureaucracy, which can create a culture of excessive rules and regulations that can lead to inefficiencies and delays in decision-making.

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Ghana is the West African country that practiced a one-party system. A one-party system is a political system in which only one political party is allowed to hold power, and opposition parties are banned or suppressed. In Ghana, the one-party system was introduced in 1964 under the presidency of Kwame Nkrumah, who was the leader of the Convention People's Party (CPP). The one-party system lasted until 1979 when it was abolished after a military coup. During the one-party system in Ghana, the CPP was the only legally recognized political party, and all other parties were banned. The government used its power to suppress opposition, control the media, and limit freedom of speech. Therefore, Ghana is the West African country that practiced a one-party system, under the presidency of Kwame Nkrumah and the Convention People's Party.

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The government protects the lives and property of the citizens of a state through the courts and the police. The courts are responsible for interpreting and enforcing the laws of the country, while the police are responsible for maintaining law and order and protecting citizens from crime. Together, they form the backbone of the justice system and ensure that citizens can live and work safely in their communities. When a crime is committed, the police investigate and gather evidence, and then the courts determine whether the accused is guilty or innocent. If the accused is found guilty, the court will impose a sentence, which may include imprisonment or fines. In addition to enforcing the law, the government may also take steps to prevent crime and protect citizens from harm. For example, the government may provide security measures such as street lighting, CCTV cameras, and neighborhood watch programs. In summary, the government protects the lives and property of the citizens of a state through the courts and the police. These institutions work together to maintain law and order and ensure that citizens can live and work safely in their communities.

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The meetings of the Commonwealth of Nations are held once every two years. The Commonwealth of Nations is a political association made up of 54 member states, mostly former territories of the British Empire. The purpose of the Commonwealth is to promote democracy, human rights, and economic development among its member countries. One of the ways the Commonwealth achieves its objectives is through regular meetings of its member heads of government, known as the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). This meeting is held once every two years, and is hosted by a different member country each time. At these meetings, leaders of member countries discuss a wide range of issues affecting the Commonwealth and the world at large, and work to develop strategies for addressing them. The meetings also provide an opportunity for leaders to network and establish personal relationships, which can help to foster closer ties and cooperation among member countries. Overall, the biennial meetings of the Commonwealth provide an important platform for member countries to come together, share their perspectives, and work towards common goals.

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Foreign policy refers to the principles and strategies that govern a country's interactions and relationships with other countries and international organizations. It is a set of guidelines and actions adopted by a government to protect the country's interests and achieve its goals in the international arena. The purpose of foreign policy is to establish diplomatic, economic, and cultural relations with other countries and promote national security, economic prosperity, and influence in global affairs.

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Slander limits a citizen's freedom of expression. Freedom of expression is a fundamental right that allows individuals to express their opinions and ideas without fear of punishment or persecution. This includes the right to speak, write, and share information through various mediums such as newspapers, television, and the internet. However, slander is a form of speech that can be harmful and damaging to individuals. It involves making false or damaging statements about someone with the intention of harming their reputation. Slander can lead to legal action and can limit a citizen's freedom of expression. While citizens have the right to express their opinions and ideas, they also have a responsibility to ensure that their speech does not harm others. Slander is an example of speech that goes beyond the limits of freedom of expression and can have serious consequences. In summary, slander can limit a citizen's freedom of expression, which is a fundamental right that allows individuals to express their opinions and ideas without fear of punishment or persecution.

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The money given by the central government to local authorities is known as "block grants." These are funds that are provided by the central government to local authorities without any specific conditions attached. Block grants are given to support the ongoing delivery of local services, such as education, social care, and waste management. Local authorities have some discretion over how they allocate the funding they receive through block grants, as long as it is used for the intended purposes. The amount of funding provided through block grants can vary depending on a range of factors, including the size and needs of the local authority, and national government priorities.

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The judiciary is one of the three branches of government responsible for interpreting and enforcing the law. Its primary function is to settle disputes, maintain law and order, interpret the law, and protect the rights of citizens. Therefore, one of the options given cannot be a function of the judiciary. The option that is not a function of the judiciary is "maintenance of law and order." Although the judiciary can help maintain law and order through its decisions and actions, it is primarily responsible for interpreting and enforcing the law and protecting the rights of individuals. Law enforcement and maintenance of order are generally the responsibility of the executive branch.

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The body responsible for conducting and supervising elections in West African countries is the electoral commission. An electoral commission is an independent organization responsible for organizing and overseeing elections in a country or region. The role of the electoral commission is to ensure that elections are conducted in a free, fair, and transparent manner. In West Africa, each country has its own electoral commission responsible for managing elections at the national and local levels. The electoral commission is responsible for voter registration, organization of polling stations, counting of votes, and the announcement of election results. The electoral commission plays a critical role in promoting democratic governance in West Africa.

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The recurrent coups in West African countries have resulted in political instability. Political instability refers to a situation where there is a high level of uncertainty and unpredictability in the political system of a country, characterized by frequent changes in government and political leadership, social unrest, and violence. The recurrent coups in West African countries have led to a breakdown of law and order, economic instability, and a lack of confidence in the government and political system. This has affected the overall development of these countries and made them less attractive to foreign investors. Additionally, political instability can lead to a loss of confidence in the government, which can result in a lack of public support for policies and programs, and can ultimately lead to a decline in the quality of governance.

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The factor that could make elections to be free and fair is the registration of eligible voters. This is because only those who are registered as voters are allowed to vote, ensuring that only those who are entitled to vote are allowed to do so. By registering voters, the electoral commission ensures that only those who meet the eligibility criteria, such as age and citizenship, are allowed to participate in the electoral process. This helps to prevent electoral fraud, as ineligible persons are prevented from voting.

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The purpose of an election is to allow people to participate in choosing their leaders. An election is a process where people choose who will represent them in government or other positions of power. The purpose of an election is to give citizens a voice in who will be making decisions on their behalf. It provides an opportunity for people to express their opinions and preferences by voting for the candidates or parties that best represent their values and beliefs. Elections also help ensure that leaders are accountable to the people they represent. By holding regular elections, citizens have the power to remove leaders who have not lived up to their promises or who have failed to serve the interests of the people. In summary, the purpose of an election is to give people a say in who will represent them and to hold leaders accountable to the people they serve.

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A constitution is a body of rules, regulations, and conventions that determine how a country or organization is governed. It is a set of principles and guidelines that establish the structure, powers, and limitations of government institutions, as well as the rights and freedoms of the citizens. A constitution can be written or unwritten and serves as the supreme law of the land, which means that all other laws and regulations must comply with its provisions. Constitutions can be amended or revised but usually require a specific process or procedure to do so.

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The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent states, most of which were formerly under British rule, joined together for co-operation and mutual benefit. It faces a number of challenges. Five of them are:

1. Lack of a common ideology and shared interests: The member states differ widely in political systems, ideologies, cultures and levels of development, so it is difficult for them to agree on common policies and to act with one voice.
2. Absence of coercive or enforcement power: The Commonwealth has no army and no binding legal authority over its members. Its decisions and resolutions are merely advisory, so it cannot compel members to comply, which weakens its effectiveness.
3. Wide disparity in wealth and development: There is a great gap between the few rich, developed members (such as Britain, Canada and Australia) and the many poor, developing members, and this inequality breeds tension and complaints of neglect.
4. Financial constraints: The organisation depends on contributions from members, many of whom are poor or default in their payments, so it often lacks sufficient funds to carry out its programmes.
5. Conflicts and disagreements among members: Political disputes, border conflicts and ideological differences among member states (and disagreements over issues such as apartheid, human rights and the conduct of particular members) have strained the association and led some to threaten or carry out withdrawal.
6. Domination by Britain and colonial memories: Some members feel that the association is still dominated by Britain and serves British interests, and lingering resentment over the colonial past reduces enthusiasm and unity.
7. Waning commitment and relevance: Members increasingly give priority to regional blocs (such as the EU, AU and ECOWAS), so commitment to the Commonwealth and its relevance have declined.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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Democracy is government by the people, based on popular consent and the rule of law, while a military regime is government by the armed forces, usually installed through a coup and ruling by decree. Five reasons why people prefer democratic government to military regimes are:

1. Popular participation and consent: In a democracy the people choose their leaders through periodic free elections and take part in decision-making, whereas a military regime imposes itself without the consent of the governed.
2. Protection of fundamental human rights and freedoms: Democracy guarantees and protects the rights and freedoms of citizens (of speech, association, movement and so on), while military regimes often suspend these rights and rule by force.
3. Rule of law and constitutionalism: A democratic government operates under the constitution and the rule of law, so that everyone, including the rulers, is subject to the law; military regimes rule by arbitrary decrees and suspend the constitution.
4. Accountability and change of government through peaceful means: Under democracy the government is accountable to the people and can be voted out peacefully at elections, whereas a military regime is not accountable and can usually only be removed by force.
5. Freedom of the press and freedom of expression: Democracy allows a free press and open criticism of government, which check abuse of power, while military regimes usually gag the press and suppress opposition.
6. Separation of powers and independence of the judiciary: Democracy provides checks and balances and an independent judiciary that curb dictatorship, unlike the concentration of power in a military regime.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Definition of capitalism

Capitalism is an economic and political system in which the means of production and distribution (land, capital, factories, banks and businesses) are owned and controlled by private individuals and companies rather than by the state, and in which production is carried on for private profit. It is based on private ownership of property, the profit motive, free enterprise, competition and the operation of market forces of demand and supply (the price mechanism), with only limited interference by government.

(b) Two advantages and two disadvantages of capitalism

Advantages:

1. Efficiency and higher productivity: The profit motive and competition encourage hard work, efficiency and the best use of resources, leading to increased production of goods and services.
2. Individual freedom and initiative: It allows freedom of enterprise and choice, so that people are free to own property, start businesses, choose their occupation and spend their income as they wish; this encourages initiative, innovation and invention.

Disadvantages:

1. Unequal distribution of wealth: Capitalism concentrates wealth in the hands of a few, widening the gap between the rich and the poor and creating social injustice.
2. Exploitation and neglect of social welfare: The pursuit of private profit can lead to the exploitation of workers and consumers, and essential but unprofitable services may be neglected, while economic instability such as unemployment and periodic depressions may occur.

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Federalism is a system in which governmental powers are constitutionally divided between a central government and the component units, each supreme within its own sphere. Five factors that give rise to the adoption of federalism are:

1. Large size of the country: Where a country is very large in area, a federal system is adopted so that government can be brought nearer to the people and administration made more manageable through the units.
2. Ethnic, cultural and linguistic diversity: Where a country is made up of many peoples with different languages, customs and religions, federalism enables the diverse groups to live together in one country while each retains a degree of self-government and preserves its identity.
3. Fear of domination by a majority group: Where smaller groups or units fear being dominated by a larger one, federalism reassures them by dividing power among the units so that no single group can control all others.
4. Differences in the level of development: Where the various parts differ widely in education, economic advancement and social outlook, federalism allows each unit to develop at its own pace.
5. Desire for unity in diversity: The need to bind different peoples together into one nation while allowing them to manage their local affairs encourages the adoption of federalism, achieving unity without imposing uniformity.
6. Historical and geographical factors: Previously separate territories or units, or areas separated by geography, may come together for common purposes such as defence and economic strength while retaining their identities, leading to a federal union.
7. Common external interests: The need for a strong common front in matters such as defence, security and economic development can draw separate units into a federation.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Three features of the Macpherson Constitution (1951)

1. Federal (regional) structure with wider powers for the regions: It retained and strengthened the three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern), each with its own House of Assembly (and a House of Chiefs in the North and West) empowered to legislate on regional matters.
2. A central legislature with an elected Nigerian majority: It created a Central House of Representatives with a much larger membership, most of whom were Nigerians chosen through the regional houses, giving Nigerians a stronger voice at the centre.
3. Introduction of the ministerial system: Nigerians were appointed as ministers at both the central and regional levels, giving indigenous leaders a share in the executive administration for the first time.
4. It was a product of wide consultation: Unlike the Richards Constitution, it was drawn up after extensive consultation with Nigerians, including the Ibadan General Conference of 1950.

(Any three of the above are acceptable.)

(b) Two reasons for the breakdown of the Lyttleton Constitution (1954)

1. Attainment of independence and self-government: The constitution was overtaken by events. As the regions attained internal self-government and the country moved to full independence in 1960, a new independence constitution was required to replace it.
2. Constitutional crises and demands for further reform: Persistent disagreements among the regions and political parties, and demands for the creation of more regions, revenue allocation and greater autonomy, led to a series of constitutional conferences (1957 and 1958) which produced revisions that superseded the Lyttleton arrangement.
3. Regional agitation for self-government at different times: The Eastern and Western Regions became self-governing in 1957 and the North in 1959, so the original arrangement had to be altered to accommodate these changes.

(Any two of the above are acceptable.)

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An election is free and fair when it is conducted openly, honestly and impartially so that the true wishes of the electorate are reflected in the result. Elections can be made free and fair in the following five ways:

1. An independent and impartial electoral body: There should be a neutral electoral commission, free from government control, to organise and supervise the elections honestly, register voters, count votes and announce results without bias.
2. An up-to-date and accurate voters' register: A credible register of genuine, qualified voters should be prepared and displayed for correction, so as to prevent multiple registration, impersonation and the padding of names.
3. Adequate and impartial security: The police and other security agencies should provide protection at polling stations and remain neutral, so that voters can vote freely without intimidation, thuggery or violence.
4. Secret ballot: Voting should be by secret ballot so that electors can vote according to their conscience without fear of being victimised, and to prevent bribery and undue influence.
5. Equal opportunity for all parties and candidates: All political parties and candidates should have equal access to the mass media, freedom to campaign, and a level playing field, without the party in power abusing state resources or the incumbency advantage.
6. Effective machinery for settling disputes: There should be impartial election tribunals and courts to hear and determine complaints and petitions quickly, so that electoral malpractices can be punished and injustices corrected.
7. Voter education and the presence of observers: Educating the electorate on the voting process and allowing local and international observers help to ensure transparency and reduce malpractice.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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(a) Definition of legitimacy

Legitimacy is the quality of being lawful, rightful and generally accepted. In government, it refers to the general belief and acceptance by the people that those who exercise political power have the right to do so, and that their authority and commands ought to be obeyed. A government is said to be legitimate when it has come to power through accepted and constitutional means and enjoys the support and consent of the governed. Legitimacy therefore turns naked power into rightful authority.

(b) Four factors that determine legitimacy

1. Mode of acquiring power (constitutionality): A government that comes to power through due constitutional process, such as a free and fair election, is regarded as legitimate, whereas one that seizes power unlawfully (for example through a coup) lacks legitimacy.
2. Consent and support of the people: Legitimacy depends on the willing acceptance and support of the majority of the citizens; a government backed by popular consent is legitimate.
3. Adherence to the rule of law and the constitution: A government that governs according to the constitution and the law, respects fundamental rights and rules justly, earns and retains legitimacy.
4. Effective and good performance: A government that maintains law and order, provides security and social amenities and promotes the welfare of the people gains legitimacy through its good performance.
5. Tradition and long usage: Authority sanctioned by long-established custom and tradition (as with traditional rulers) is accepted as legitimate.
6. Charisma and personal qualities of the leader: The exceptional personal appeal, competence and moral standing of a leader can win the acceptance and loyalty of the people.
7. Recognition by other states and international bodies: Acceptance and recognition of a government by other nations and international organisations reinforces its legitimacy.

(Any four of the above are acceptable.)

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The study of government is important for many reasons. Five of them are:

1. It produces good and informed citizens: The study of government teaches citizens their rights and duties and how the state is run, enabling them to participate intelligently in the affairs of their country.
2. It creates political awareness and consciousness: It makes people aware of political issues, government policies and current affairs, so that they can form sound judgements and hold their leaders accountable.
3. It promotes patriotism and national unity: By teaching the history, institutions and values of the nation, the study of government fosters loyalty, love of country and a sense of belonging among citizens of diverse backgrounds.
4. It prepares people for leadership and public service: It equips people with knowledge of political institutions, administration and public affairs, preparing them for careers and roles in politics, the civil service, diplomacy, law and other fields.
5. It helps citizens understand and protect their rights: Knowledge of the constitution, the rule of law and fundamental human rights enables citizens to know and defend their rights and to resist oppression and abuse of power.
6. It promotes understanding of other systems and international relations: It enables one to understand different forms of government, foreign affairs and international organisations, encouraging tolerance and good relations among nations.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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In the Yoruba pre-colonial political system, the king (the Oba, such as the Alaafin of Oyo) was selected and installed by a body of hereditary chiefs known as the King Makers (for example the Oyo Mesi, headed by the Bashorun). Five of their functions and powers were:

1. Selection of a new Oba: The chief function of the King Makers was to choose a new king from among the eligible princes of the ruling houses whenever the throne became vacant. No prince could become Oba without their nomination and approval.
2. Installation of the Oba: They performed the traditional rites and ceremonies of coronation and formally installed the chosen candidate as king, conferring legitimacy on his reign.
3. Advising and checking the Oba: They served as a council of state that advised the Oba on the affairs of the kingdom and acted as a check on his powers, so that he could not rule as an absolute despot.
4. Power to reject or depose the Oba: The King Makers could call an erring or tyrannical Oba to order and, in extreme cases, reject him. In Oyo the Oyo Mesi could require an unpopular Alaafin to commit suicide by presenting him with an empty calabash (or parrot's eggs), thereby removing him from office.
5. Regency during an interregnum: They administered the kingdom and maintained order during the period between the death of one Oba and the installation of the next, ensuring continuity of government.
6. Legislative and judicial roles: As leading chiefs they took part in making important decisions, settling major disputes and performing certain religious and ceremonial duties on behalf of the state.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)

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Nationalism developed more slowly in French-speaking West Africa than in the British territories. Five reasons for the slow rate of nationalism in French West Africa were:

1. The policy of assimilation: The French policy of assimilation aimed to turn Africans into Frenchmen. The educated elite were made to feel French and to identify with France rather than to demand independence, which delayed the growth of a nationalist consciousness.
2. Political integration with France: The colonies were regarded as overseas parts of France and were represented in the French Parliament in Paris. This integration made many leaders seek reforms and equality within the French union rather than separate nationhood.
3. Harsh and repressive administration (the assimilated/subject divide and the indigenat): French rule was highly centralised and authoritarian, and the system of forced labour and the indigenat (summary punishment of subjects) suppressed opposition and discouraged open agitation.
4. Limited Western education: The French provided fewer schools, so there were fewer educated Africans to lead nationalist agitation, compared with the larger educated class in British West Africa.
5. Absence of a free press and free political association: There was little freedom of the press, of speech and of association in French West Africa, so nationalist ideas could not spread easily as they did in the British colonies.
6. Privileges of the assimilated elite: Those who became French citizens enjoyed special privileges and status, and were therefore reluctant to fight against a system from which they benefited.
7. Deliberate suppression of nationalist leaders: The French authorities often exiled, imprisoned or transferred radical leaders and chiefs, weakening organised nationalist activity.

(Any five of the above are acceptable.)