WAEC SSCE - Government - 2004

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The first West African to become the Secretary-General of the Commonwealth is Emeka Anyaoku. He held the position from 1990 to 2000, making him the longest-serving Secretary-General in the history of the Commonwealth. Anyaoku is a Nigerian diplomat who worked tirelessly to promote peace, democracy, and development across the Commonwealth member states during his tenure. He was instrumental in the implementation of various initiatives that aimed to promote human rights, good governance, and sustainable development. Overall, Anyaoku's leadership and contributions have had a significant impact on the Commonwealth and the international community.

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One-party system is favourably disposed to national cohesion. A one-party system is a form of government in which a single political party has the power to control the government and make decisions on behalf of the entire country. By having only one party in power, there is less chance of disagreement or opposition, and the government can focus on creating a cohesive and unified national identity. This is especially important in countries with diverse populations, as a one-party system can help to minimize ethnic or sectarian divisions and promote a sense of national unity. However, this system can also lead to a lack of political diversity and an absence of checks and balances, which can undermine the rule of law and limit individual freedoms.

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In the study of government, public administration covers the management and organization of the civil service, public corporations, and local governments. This means that public administration focuses on the processes, policies, and practices that are involved in the delivery of public services, including things like planning, budgeting, and personnel management. Public administration is concerned with ensuring that public resources are used efficiently and effectively to meet the needs of citizens, and that government services are delivered in a transparent and accountable manner. It encompasses a wide range of activities, from the management of schools and hospitals to the regulation of industries and the provision of social services. Overall, public administration is about ensuring that government institutions are well-managed, responsive to citizens' needs, and capable of delivering high-quality public services.

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Red-tapism refers to the excessive use of formalities and bureaucratic procedures in government administration. It is a situation where officials tend to follow rigid and inflexible rules and regulations even in cases where common sense suggests otherwise. The term originated from the practice of using red tape to bind official documents, which symbolizes the bureaucratic procedures and slow decision-making process. Red-tapism is often associated with delays, inefficiencies, and corruption, and it can hinder the smooth functioning of government activities.

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A government is said to be legitimate if it has the people's mandate to rule. Legitimacy refers to the belief and acceptance by the people that their government has the right to rule and make decisions on their behalf. This mandate is often expressed through free and fair elections, where citizens are able to choose their leaders and representatives. A legitimate government is also expected to respect the rule of law, protect individual rights and freedoms, and ensure that its actions are not oppressive. In addition, a legitimate government is accountable to the people and accepts criticisms and feedback from citizens. Providing social services for the people is important, but it is not the only factor that determines the legitimacy of a government. Overall, legitimacy is a critical aspect of democratic governance, as it ensures that the government is responsive to the needs and aspirations of its citizens and acts in their best interest.

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In a military regime, the organs of government that are typically combined or fused together are the legislature and the executive. This means that the military leadership, which typically assumes control of the government in a military regime, will also take on the responsibilities of making and enforcing laws. This is in contrast to a democratic government where the legislative and executive branches are separate and have distinct roles and responsibilities. The fusion of these two branches of government in a military regime often leads to a concentration of power in the hands of the military leadership and a lack of checks and balances on their authority.

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The factor that necessitates the adoption of federalism in a state is "Fear of one ethnic group dominating the others". Federalism allows for the distribution of power and resources among various levels of government, which can help prevent one ethnic group from dominating the others. By sharing power and resources, each group can have a say in how the government is run and how resources are allocated. This can promote greater stability and unity in a state by ensuring that no one group is unfairly favored over others. The adoption of a written constitution, the availability of natural resources, or the encouragement of secession may be relevant to federalism in certain contexts, but they do not necessarily necessitate the adoption of federalism in a state.

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The Cotton Producers' Union represents an economic pressure group. As the name suggests, this pressure group is made up of cotton producers who come together to promote and protect their economic interests. The group advocates for policies that are beneficial to cotton producers, such as subsidies, price controls, and favorable trade agreements. They also work to ensure that cotton producers are able to operate in a business-friendly environment by advocating for policies that reduce regulations and bureaucracy. In summary, the Cotton Producers' Union is an economic pressure group that advocates for policies that promote the economic interests of cotton producers.

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Political parties contest elections in order to gain control of political power. By winning elections, political parties are able to form governments and implement their policies. The ultimate goal of political parties is to influence public opinion and gain support from voters to achieve their policy objectives. Additionally, participating in elections can help prevent coups d'état by providing a peaceful and democratic means for selecting leaders and transferring power.

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All types of government perform the functions of providing welfare and developmental facilities, maintaining law and order, and encouraging trade with other states to some extent. However, the function of encouraging the struggle for power is not a function of government. In fact, the struggle for power is often a challenge to the government's authority and stability. Therefore, it is not a function that governments actively encourage or promote. Instead, governments aim to maintain stability, order, and continuity, and ensure that power is exercised in a legitimate and democratic manner.

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A country's foreign policy refers to its approach to dealing with other countries and international organizations. It is shaped by various factors, such as its size, leadership style, educational system, and economic system. However, out of the given options, the educational system does not play a significant role in shaping a country's foreign policy. The size of a country may determine its military and economic strength, while the leadership style may influence the country's diplomatic relations and approach to international conflict. The economic system may affect the country's trade and investment policies with other nations.

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The theory of the separation of powers was propounded by Baron de Montesquieu. This theory proposes that the powers of government should be divided into separate branches to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and potentially abusing its power. Montesquieu argued that a separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial branches would ensure that each branch checks and balances the others, promoting the rule of law and protecting individual rights. This principle has been a cornerstone of modern democratic systems around the world, including in the United States, where the Constitution separates the powers of the federal government into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

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Habeas Corpus implies "unlawful detention." It is a legal term that refers to a person's right to be released from detention or imprisonment if it is deemed illegal or unlawful. Habeas Corpus is a fundamental principle of many modern legal systems and is designed to protect individuals from arbitrary arrest and detention by the state or other authorities. The term "Habeas Corpus" is Latin for "you shall have the body," which refers to the legal process by which a person can challenge their detention in court and seek to be released if it is deemed illegal. In short, Habeas Corpus is a legal protection against unlawful detention, which is a basic right for all citizens in a free and democratic society.

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The administrative headquarters of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is located in Abuja. ECOWAS is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising 15 West African countries. The headquarters is the central hub for the coordination and implementation of various programs and policies aimed at promoting economic integration, regional cooperation, and political stability among member states. Therefore, the correct answer is Abuja.

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Public Complaints Commission in West African countries can be called Ombudsman. An Ombudsman is an independent government official who is responsible for investigating complaints from members of the public against public officials or government agencies. The Ombudsman's role is to ensure that public officials are accountable for their actions and to protect the rights of citizens by ensuring that their complaints are heard and addressed. The Public Complaints Commission in West African countries operates in a similar way to an Ombudsman, and is tasked with investigating complaints against government agencies and officials, with the aim of promoting good governance and accountability in the public sector.

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The philosophy and fundamental law of a country are contained in its constitution. A constitution is a set of rules and principles that govern the way a country is run. It outlines the basic structure of government, the powers and responsibilities of the different branches of government, and the rights and freedoms of citizens. The constitution is the supreme law of the land, and all other laws and policies must be in line with its principles. It is the foundation of the legal system and sets the framework for the political and social order of a country. Therefore, a country's constitution is the document that embodies its philosophy and fundamental law.

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In a fascist regime, the Head of State is supreme and above the law. This means that the leader has unchecked power and authority over the government and its citizens. The leader is not accountable to the people and can make decisions without consulting the legislative branch or any other governing body. This type of government is characterized by extreme nationalism, dictatorial power, and suppression of individual rights and freedoms.

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The primary objective of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is to promote the socio-economic development of its member states. ECOWAS is a regional organization made up of 15 countries in West Africa that work together to promote economic cooperation and integration in the region. Its main goal is to create a single, unified market that will facilitate trade and investment among member states, which will in turn lead to greater economic growth and development. ECOWAS also works to promote regional peace and security, and to coordinate efforts to address common challenges such as poverty, disease, and climate change. Therefore, the primary objective of ECOWAS is to promote the socio-economic development of its member states, through regional integration and cooperation in trade, investment, and other areas.

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Constitutional Government is run "according to the laws of the land." A constitutional government is a system of government where the powers of the government are limited by a written or unwritten constitution. The constitution outlines the rules, principles, and procedures that govern the political system and protect the rights and freedoms of citizens. In a constitutional government, the government officials and citizens are bound by the provisions of the constitution and must operate within its limits. This ensures that the government is run fairly and justly and that no one, including the government officials, is above the law. Constitutional government is a fundamental aspect of democratic societies, as it establishes the principles of rule of law and protects individual rights and freedoms.

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The institution through which governments discharge responsibilities is known as organs of government. This refers to the various bodies or branches of government that work together to carry out the functions of government. These organs include the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, which have distinct roles in the governance process. The executive branch is responsible for implementing policies, the legislative branch is responsible for making laws, and the judicial branch is responsible for interpreting and enforcing laws. Together, these organs of government ensure that the responsibilities of government are carried out effectively and efficiently.

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The principle of collective responsibility is best upheld in a cabinet system of government. In a cabinet system, the executive power is vested in a group of ministers who are collectively responsible to the legislature for the policies and decisions of the government. This means that all members of the cabinet are equally responsible for the actions of the government, and they must all support and defend government policies, even if they personally disagree with them. If one member of the cabinet disagrees with a policy or decision, they must either resign from the cabinet or accept the principle of collective responsibility and publicly support the government's position. The principle of collective responsibility ensures that the government acts as a cohesive unit and that decisions are made based on consensus rather than individual preferences. Overall, the cabinet system is designed to promote unity and accountability in the government and to ensure that all members of the executive are fully committed to the policies and decisions of the government.

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In a confederal state, the primary loyalty of a citizen goes to the confederating units rather than the government at the centre. This means that the states or provinces that make up the confederation are seen as the primary political entities, with the central government being a secondary authority that only deals with issues that are beyond the scope of the individual states. Therefore, citizens in a confederal state are more likely to identify with their state or province, and feel a greater sense of loyalty towards it than towards the central government.

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The establishment of local government authorities is primarily aimed at bringing the government closer to the people. This means that the government seeks to create a system of governance that is more accessible to individuals at the grassroots level. By doing so, the government hopes to improve the quality of life for people living in local communities by providing services and support tailored to their specific needs. This also enables the government to have a better understanding of the challenges and opportunities in the local areas, and to address them effectively. Overall, the establishment of local government authorities is about decentralizing power and resources to improve governance and service delivery at the local level.

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A society without constituted authority is called a stateless society. It is a type of society where there is no recognized central government or political authority that has the power to enforce laws or maintain order. In a stateless society, decisions are often made through consensus-building, and social norms and traditions play a significant role in regulating behavior. It is also sometimes referred to as an "anarchic society," but it's important to note that this doesn't necessarily mean that chaos or violence are prevalent in such societies.

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The earliest agent in the formation of public opinion is the family. This is because the family is the first social unit an individual is exposed to and it plays a crucial role in shaping their beliefs, values, and attitudes. Children learn from their parents and other family members, observing and internalizing their behaviors and opinions. As a result, the family is often responsible for instilling the basic principles and ideas that guide an individual's thinking and decision-making process. The influence of the family on public opinion can be seen in the similarities of political views, religious beliefs, and cultural practices within families and communities. Therefore, the family plays a fundamental role in shaping the earliest foundations of an individual's public opinion.

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The system that is encouraged to preserve the liberties of individuals in a country is the multi-party system. This is because the multi-party system allows for multiple political parties to exist and compete for power through elections, which provides citizens with a greater degree of choice and the ability to hold their government accountable. This, in turn, creates a system of checks and balances that helps prevent any one group or individual from monopolizing power and infringing upon the liberties of others. In contrast, feudalism and one-party systems tend to concentrate power in the hands of a few individuals or groups, while communism emphasizes collective ownership over individual liberties.

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The theory of socialism was popularized by Karl Marx, a German philosopher, economist, and political theorist. Marx developed the concept of socialism as a response to the economic and social conditions of the industrial revolution, which he believed resulted in exploitation of the working class by the wealthy owners of the means of production. According to Marx, socialism would eliminate the unequal distribution of wealth and power through the collective ownership of the means of production, and the establishment of a classless society in which everyone has equal access to resources and opportunities. His ideas have had a significant impact on the development of socialist movements and governments around the world.

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Direct democracy implies that the governance of a state involves all the citizens of the state. In a direct democracy, citizens are involved in making decisions about government policies and laws through a process of participation and direct decision-making. This means that citizens have the opportunity to express their views and preferences on issues that affect their lives, rather than relying on elected representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Direct democracy can take various forms, such as town hall meetings, referendums, and citizen initiatives. The goal of direct democracy is to ensure that all citizens have a say in the decisions that affect their lives, and to promote greater participation and accountability in the political process. Overall, direct democracy is a system of government in which all citizens are involved in the decision-making process and have a direct role in shaping government policies and laws.

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A system of government that is based on the public ownership of means of production and distribution is called socialism. This means that the government or the people collectively own and control the resources, industries, and services that are necessary for economic activity. The goal of socialism is to create a more equal and just society, where resources are distributed fairly and everyone has access to basic needs like healthcare, education, and housing. In a socialist system, the government plays a significant role in regulating the economy and ensuring that everyone has access to essential services. Overall, socialism is a system of government that emphasizes the collective ownership and control of resources, with the aim of creating a more equal and just society.

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The major aim of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is to "maintain international peace and security." The United Nations was established in 1945 after the end of World War II to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts. The organization works towards this aim by facilitating diplomatic negotiations and providing a forum for member states to discuss and address issues affecting international peace and security. The UN also has several bodies, such as the Security Council, which can take action to prevent conflicts and promote peace. The UN's efforts in maintaining international peace and security have included peacekeeping missions, humanitarian aid, and conflict resolution efforts in various parts of the world.

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The major feature of the constitutions in British West African colonies in the 1920s was the introduction of the elective principle. This means that people were allowed to vote for their representatives in the Legislative Council. Prior to this time, the colonial administrators appointed members to the council. The introduction of the elective principle was a significant step towards representative government and gave the people a greater say in the decision-making process. It also paved the way for the eventual attainment of independence by these colonies.

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The system of administration adopted by the British in the crown colonies in West Africa was indirect rule. Indirect rule involved the British using existing traditional rulers and systems of governance to maintain control over their colonies. The British would appoint local chiefs and rulers to act as their representatives and enforce their laws and policies. This allowed the British to govern their colonies with minimal direct involvement, while still maintaining control over the local population.

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The primary function of the executive is to implement government policies. This means that the executive branch of government, which is usually led by the president or prime minister, is responsible for carrying out the laws and policies created by the legislative branch. The executive branch is also responsible for enforcing laws and regulations, managing the day-to-day operations of government agencies, and making decisions that affect the country's citizens and economy. While the executive branch may have some influence over the legislative branch, its primary role is to ensure that the laws and policies created by the legislative branch are effectively implemented and enforced.

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The development of nationalist movement was late in French West Africa because of the assimilation policy. Unlike the British who adopted the indirect rule system of governance in their colonies, the French pursued a policy of assimilation, which aimed to integrate their colonies into France and make them an extension of French culture and society. This policy discouraged the growth of nationalist movements, as it gave the impression that French West Africans were French citizens and part of a greater French community. In addition, the French pursued a policy of repression towards any opposition to their rule, which further suppressed the development of nationalist movements. As a result, the nationalist movement in French West Africa only began to emerge after World War II, when the French government began to relax its assimilation policy and granted greater political and economic rights to its West African subjects.

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A system of government which is based on the public ownership of means of production and distribution is called socialism. In a socialist system, the government or the community as a whole owns and controls the means of production and distribution of goods and services, as opposed to private individuals or corporations. The aim of socialism is to create a more equal and just society by ensuring that wealth and resources are distributed fairly among all members of the community. Under socialism, the government is responsible for ensuring that everyone has access to basic goods and services such as healthcare, education, and housing, and that these goods and services are of a high quality and affordable for all. Socialism is often contrasted with capitalism, which is based on private ownership of the means of production and a free market economy.

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Independence of the judiciary means that judges must be free from any influence, control, or interference from the other branches of government, powerful individuals, or special interest groups. It means that judges should be impartial and free to make their decisions based solely on the facts of the case and the law, without fear of reprisal or punishment. An independent judiciary is essential for the rule of law, which is the principle that all people, including government officials, are subject to the law and that no one is above it. This means that the judiciary must not be involved in law-making but should rather interpret and apply the law impartially. Therefore, an independent judiciary is a critical component of a democratic society as it serves as a check on the powers of the other branches of government and helps to uphold the rights and freedoms of citizens.

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Reducing the powers of the legislature is not a reason for delegated legislation. Delegated legislation is the process by which the legislature (Parliament) delegates some of its lawmaking powers to other bodies, such as ministers, local authorities, or regulatory agencies. This is usually done to address the technicalities of modern legislation and the need for flexibility in implementing laws. Delegated legislation allows for more detailed and technical regulations to be made quickly and efficiently, without the need for a full parliamentary debate and vote. It is also used to ensure speedy legislation, as the process can be faster than passing a full Act of Parliament. However, the aim of delegated legislation is not to reduce the powers of the legislature, but rather to assist the legislature in making and implementing laws more effectively and efficiently. Overall, delegated legislation is an important tool for modern governance, allowing for more detailed and specialized regulation of a wide range of issues.

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Civil servants are recruited, controlled, promoted, and disciplined by the Public Service Commission. The Public Service Commission is responsible for the recruitment of civil servants into various government departments and agencies. It also has the power to discipline and promote civil servants based on their performance and conduct in the workplace. The Commission ensures that the civil service operates efficiently and effectively by maintaining high standards of professionalism, integrity, and accountability among civil servants. In addition, the Commission ensures that civil servants are trained, equipped, and motivated to carry out their duties effectively and efficiently. Overall, the Public Service Commission plays a crucial role in ensuring that the civil service operates in a manner that promotes the delivery of quality services to the public.

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Totalitarianism is best described as an excessive centralization of power in the hands of a single person or a small group of people who control all aspects of the society. In a totalitarian system, the government has absolute control over the economy, politics, media, education, and all aspects of the citizens' lives. Totalitarian regimes often use propaganda, censorship, and violence to suppress opposition and maintain control over the population. This type of government is characterized by the absence of individual rights and freedoms, as the state is the ultimate authority and has total power over its citizens.

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French West African Dual Citizenship was a policy introduced by France in the 1940s which allowed French citizenship to be granted to people in its West African colonies who also wanted to maintain their local citizenship. Therefore, the group provided for under this policy would be citizens of the French West African colonies who wanted to hold dual citizenship - i.e., maintain their existing citizenship while also acquiring French citizenship. This could include men and women, Muslims and Christians, soldiers and civilians, or any other group of people in the French West African colonies who wished to take advantage of this policy.

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The correct term for nobles who form a government is "aristocrats." Aristocrats are members of the highest social class in a society, typically consisting of wealthy landowners and nobility. They have historically held significant political power and influence, often forming the ruling class in many societies. Aristocrats may hold titles such as Duke, Earl, or Baron, and they are often associated with privilege and elitism.

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Unicameralism refers to a system of government in which the legislature or parliament has only one chamber or house. This means that there is only one group of elected representatives who make and pass laws for the country or region. Unicameralism is in contrast to bicameralism, where the legislative branch is divided into two separate chambers or houses, such as a Senate and a House of Representatives. In a unicameral system, laws can be passed more quickly since there is only one chamber that needs to approve them, but there is also less opportunity for debate and discussion before a law is passed.

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(a) Meaning of Military Rule

Military rule is a system of government in which the armed forces (the army, navy and air force) seize and control the machinery of government, usually through a coup d'etat, and govern the state by decrees rather than by an elected legislature and a constitution.

(b) Five reasons why people reject Military Rule in West Africa

1. It is undemocratic: Military rule denies the people the right to elect their leaders and to participate in government, since power is seized by force.
2. Rule by decree and suppression of rights: The military governs by decrees, suspends the constitution and often suppresses fundamental human rights, the press and opposition.
3. Absence of the rule of law: Under military rule there is arbitrary use of power, detention without trial and lack of accountability, which the people resent.
4. Unconstitutional seizure of power: The military comes to power illegally through coups, which are unconstitutional and often accompanied by violence and bloodshed.
5. Concentration and abuse of power: Powers are concentrated in a few military officers without checks and balances, leading to dictatorship, corruption and mismanagement.

(Other acceptable reasons: absence of free elections and opposition; frequent coups and counter-coups causing instability; harshness and highhandedness of the regime; damage to the country's international image.)

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The Judiciary is the arm of government that interprets the laws and settles disputes. Its main characteristics in a state are as follows.

1. Independence: The judiciary should be free from the control and interference of the executive and legislature so as to give impartial judgements.
2. Impartiality: Judges must be neutral and decide cases strictly on the merits without fear or favour, affection or ill-will.
3. Interpretation of the law: It is the organ that interprets the constitution and other laws and applies them to particular cases.
4. Security of tenure of judges: Judges hold office securely and can only be removed through a special, difficult procedure, so as to protect their independence.
5. Hierarchy of courts: The judiciary is organised in a graded system of courts, from lower courts up to the supreme court, allowing appeals.
6. Adjudication and dispute settlement: It settles disputes between individuals, and between individuals and the state.
7. Guardian of the constitution and human rights: It protects the fundamental rights of citizens and can declare unconstitutional acts null and void through judicial review.
8. Application of the rule of law: It ensures equality before the law and that no one is punished except for a breach of law.

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In the Hausa/Fulani traditional political system the Emir was the head of the emirate and performed the following functions.

1. Chief executive of the emirate: The Emir was the political and administrative head who directed the affairs of the emirate and appointed and supervised his officials.
2. Chief judge: He was the highest judicial authority; he presided over the Alkali (Sharia) courts and gave final judgements, applying Islamic law.
3. Religious leader: As a devout Muslim ruler, he defended and promoted Islam and served as the spiritual head of his people.
4. Collection of taxes: Through officials such as the Sarkin Fada and district heads, he supervised the assessment and collection of taxes such as the jangali and zakat.
5. Maintenance of law and order: He commanded the emirate forces, maintained peace and security, and punished offenders.
6. Appointment of officials: He appointed and controlled district and village heads and other title-holders (such as the Waziri, Galadima and Madawaki) who assisted in administration.

He also defended the emirate against external attack and represented his people in dealings with other emirates and the Sultan of Sokoto.

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Functions of the General Assembly of the United Nations Organization

The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ of the UN in which all member states are represented, each with one vote. Its functions include:

1. Deliberation on world issues: It discusses any question or matter within the scope of the UN Charter, including issues of international peace and security, and makes recommendations.
2. Admission of new members: On the recommendation of the Security Council, it admits new members into the organisation and may suspend or expel members.
3. Election of members to other organs: It elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the members of the Economic and Social Council, and, together with the Security Council, elects the judges of the International Court of Justice and appoints the Secretary-General.
4. Control of the budget: It considers and approves the budget of the UN and apportions the contributions (dues) payable by member states.
5. Supervision of other organs: It receives and considers annual reports from the Security Council and the other organs and agencies of the UN.
6. Promotion of international cooperation: It initiates studies and makes recommendations to promote cooperation in political, economic, social, cultural, educational and health fields, and the development of international law.
7. Promotion of human rights: It works to promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without discrimination.
8. Maintenance of peace and decolonisation: Through resolutions it works for the peaceful settlement of disputes, disarmament and the decolonisation of dependent territories.

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Merits of the Clifford Constitution of 1922

1. Introduction of the elective principle: For the first time in Nigeria (and British West Africa) it allowed the election of a few African members into the Legislative Council, giving Nigerians a say in law-making.
2. Growth of political parties and nationalism: The elective principle led to the formation of political parties such as the NNDP and stimulated political consciousness and newspaper activity.

Demerits of the Clifford Constitution of 1922

1. Very limited franchise: Only adult males in Lagos and Calabar with a high income qualification could vote, so the electorate was tiny and unrepresentative.
2. Elected members were a minority: Only four members were elected out of a large council dominated by official members, so Africans had no real power.
3. The North was excluded: The constitution applied mainly to the South; Northern Nigeria was left out of the legislative arrangement, deepening regional imbalance.
4. Official majority remained: The Governor and his officials retained control, and the Legislative Council had no authority over the North or real financial power.
5. No African in the Executive Council: Real executive power stayed entirely in British hands with no African representation.

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(a) Definition of the rights of a citizen

The rights of a citizen are the legal, political and social claims, freedoms and privileges which a person is entitled to as a member of a state, and which are recognised, protected and guaranteed by law. Examples include the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of association, the right to vote and the right to fair hearing.

(b) Ways of safeguarding the rights of a citizen

1. Entrenchment in the constitution: Making fundamental rights part of the constitution and difficult to alter protects them from arbitrary removal.
2. An independent judiciary: Free and impartial courts enforce citizens' rights and provide redress when they are violated.
3. The rule of law: Ensuring that everyone, including the government, is subject to the law guarantees equal protection of rights.
4. Free and active press: A vigilant media exposes abuses and creates awareness of rights.
5. Separation of powers: Dividing power among the three arms of government prevents tyranny and abuse of citizens' rights.
6. Existence of pressure groups and civil society: These organisations campaign for and defend the rights of citizens.
7. Public enlightenment and education: Educating citizens about their rights enables them to demand and protect them.

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(a) Explanation of decentralisation

Decentralisation is the process of transferring or sharing political and administrative powers, functions and responsibilities from the central government to lower or subordinate levels of government, such as regional, state or local governments, so that decisions can be taken and services delivered nearer to the people. It is the opposite of centralisation, and its common forms include federalism, devolution and local government administration.

(b) Advantages of decentralisation

1. It brings government closer to the people: Services and decision-making are located nearer to the grassroots, meeting local needs better.
2. It promotes popular participation: Citizens are able to take part in the administration of their own affairs.
3. It reduces the workload of the central government: Routine matters are handled locally, freeing the centre to concentrate on national issues.
4. It ensures quick decision-making: Local authorities respond faster to local problems without waiting for the centre.
5. It encourages even development: Resources and projects can be spread across the various units of the country.
6. It serves as training ground for leadership: Local administration prepares people for higher political responsibility.

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(a) Political parties in Nigeria during the Second Republic (1979-1983)

1. National Party of Nigeria (NPN)
2. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN)
3. Nigerian People's Party (NPP)
4. Great Nigeria People's Party (GNPP)

Others included the People's Redemption Party (PRP) and, later, the Nigeria Advance Party (NAP).

(b) Functions performed by political parties

1. Contesting elections and forming government: Parties field candidates, win elections and form the government of the day.
2. Political education and mobilisation: They enlighten and mobilise the electorate on political issues and encourage participation.
3. Selection and recruitment of leaders: They nominate candidates and provide the pool from which political leaders are drawn.
4. Providing a programme of government: Through their manifestoes they offer policies and alternatives from which voters choose.
5. Serving as a link between government and the people: They channel the demands and grievances of the people to government and explain government policy to the people.
6. Acting as opposition: Losing parties check the government, criticise its excesses and offer alternative policies.

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(a) What is Capitalism?

Capitalism is an economic and political system in which the means of production, distribution and exchange (such as land, factories, capital and industries) are owned and controlled by private individuals or corporations for the purpose of making profit, with minimal interference from the state and prices determined by the forces of demand and supply.

(b) Features of Capitalism

1. Private ownership of the means of production: Individuals and firms own and control land, capital and industries.
2. Profit motive: Economic activities are driven by the desire to make profit.
3. Free market and price mechanism: Prices of goods and services are fixed by the forces of demand and supply.
4. Freedom of enterprise and choice: People are free to invest, produce, consume and choose their occupations.
5. Competition: Producers compete freely for markets, which promotes efficiency and quality.
6. Minimal government interference: The state plays a limited (laissez-faire) role in economic affairs.
7. Existence of social classes: Society is divided broadly into the owners of capital (bourgeoisie) and the working class.

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Taking Nigeria as the country, the Independence Constitution of 1960 had the following main features.

1. Parliamentary system of government: It established a cabinet system with a Prime Minister (Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa) as head of government responsible to Parliament.
2. The Queen as Head of State: The British monarch, represented by a Governor-General (Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe), was the ceremonial Head of State.
3. Federal structure: Nigeria was a federation of three regions (Northern, Western and Eastern) with a central government at Lagos and a division of powers between the centre and the regions.
4. Bicameral legislature: The federal Parliament consisted of a Senate and a House of Representatives.
5. Fundamental human rights: The rights of citizens were entrenched and made enforceable in the courts.
6. An independent judiciary: The courts were made independent, though the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain remained the final court of appeal.
7. Separation of powers with checks and balances among the legislature, executive and judiciary.
8. Amendment procedure: A rigid procedure was provided for altering the constitution.

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Government and state are related but distinct concepts. The main differences are shown below.

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(a) Meaning of Native Authority

A Native Authority was a local governing body under the Indirect Rule system in British West Africa, made up of a traditional ruler or chief (or a council of chiefs) recognised and appointed by the colonial government to administer a defined area on its behalf. The Native Authority collected taxes, maintained law and order, ran native courts and a native treasury, and carried out other local functions under the supervision of a British Resident or District Officer.

(b) Defects of the Indirect Rule system

1. It made chiefs autocratic: Backed by colonial power, many chiefs abused their authority and oppressed the people.
2. It excluded the educated elite: Western-educated Africans were denied a role in governance, breeding resentment.
3. It failed in stateless societies: In areas without centralised chiefs, such as Igboland, artificial "warrant chiefs" were imposed and rejected by the people, leading to unrest such as the Aba Women's Riot of 1929.
4. It retarded political development: It preserved outdated traditional structures and slowed the growth of modern democratic institutions.