WAEC SSCE - Government - 2020 (Essay)

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Challenges faced by the United Nations Organization (UNO)

1. Abuse of the veto power: The five permanent members of the Security Council can each veto decisions, paralysing the organisation and protecting their own interests.
2. Inadequate finance: The UN depends on the contributions of member states, and the failure or refusal of many members to pay their dues promptly cripples its activities.
3. Lack of a standing army: The UN has no permanent armed force of its own and must rely on troops contributed by member states, which delays and weakens its ability to enforce peace.
4. Interference by powerful nations and disregard of its decisions: Big powers often ignore or defy UN resolutions, and pursue their own national interests, undermining its authority.
5. Persistent conflicts, terrorism and refugee crises: The rising number of wars, civil conflicts and humanitarian emergencies overstretch the organisation's resources.
6. Bureaucratic and administrative bottlenecks: The large, unwieldy structure of the organisation makes decision-making slow and sometimes inefficient.

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Means of safeguarding the rights of citizens

1. Entrenchment in a written constitution: Fundamental human rights are written into the constitution as justiciable provisions, making them difficult to tamper with.
2. An independent judiciary: Impartial courts interpret the law, hear cases of rights violations and provide remedies to citizens whose rights are breached.
3. Rule of law and due process: Where everybody, including the government, is subject to the law and no one is punished except for a breach of law duly proved, citizens' rights are protected.
4. Separation of powers: Dividing governmental powers among the executive, legislature and judiciary, with checks and balances, prevents any organ from becoming tyrannical and abusing rights.
5. A free press and active civil society: The mass media, human rights organisations and pressure groups expose violations and mobilise opinion against abuse of rights.
6. Free and fair periodic elections: The ability to vote out oppressive governments compels rulers to respect the rights of citizens.

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Ways in which public opinion is measured

Public opinion is the collective view or feeling of the majority of people on a particular issue of common concern. It can be measured or ascertained in the following ways.

1. Opinion polls and surveys: Trained pollsters interview a representative sample of the population and analyse their responses to gauge popular feeling.
2. Elections and referenda: The way people vote in elections and referendums reveals their opinion on candidates, parties and issues.
3. The mass media: Newspaper editorials, letters to the editor, phone-in programmes and social media reflect and reveal what the public is thinking.
4. Pressure groups and interest groups: The demands, petitions and campaigns of organised groups express the views of sections of the public.
5. Public meetings, rallies and demonstrations: The size and mood of crowds at rallies, protests and public gatherings indicate popular support or opposition.
6. Referendum and plebiscite results on specific questions directly show the opinion of the majority.

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(a) Features of the Igbo political system

1. Absence of a central king: the system was decentralised (acephalous), with no paramount ruler over all the Igbo.
2. Village-based autonomy: each village or town governed itself through its own assembly and elders.
3. Rule by council of elders and titled men, supported by the age-grade system.

(b) Democratic tenets of the Igbo traditional political system

1. Popular participation: all adult males had the right to attend the village assembly and take part in decision-making.
2. Decision by consensus and majority feeling: matters were discussed openly until general agreement was reached, so no single person imposed his will.
3. Freedom of speech and expression: every member was free to speak and air his views at the assembly.
4. Rule of law and equality: laws applied to all, and public offices and titles were open to those who qualified through merit and hard work, not by heredity alone.

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(a) Meaning of Political Socialization

Political socialization is the process through which individuals acquire and internalise the political values, beliefs, attitudes, norms and orientations of their society. It is the way people learn about politics and government from agents such as the family, school, peer group, mass media, religious bodies and political parties. Through it, citizens come to understand their political culture and their roles in the political system.

(b) Features of a nation

1. A group of people: a nation is made up of a body of people who see themselves as belonging together.
2. Common ties and sense of belonging: the people share a feeling of oneness, common consciousness and a desire to live together as one.
3. Shared culture and history: members generally share common language, customs, traditions and historical experiences.
4. Common territory (homeland): a nation is usually associated with a definite geographical area which its people regard as their home.

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(a) Meaning of a Public Corporation

A public corporation is a state-owned enterprise established by an Act of parliament (or a decree/edict) to provide essential goods and services to the public, usually on behalf of the government. It is a body corporate with a legal personality of its own, able to sue and be sued, own property and enter into contracts. Examples include the national electricity, railway and broadcasting corporations.

(b) Ways in which public corporations are controlled

1. Legislative control: The legislature that created the corporation supervises it by debating its activities, reviewing its reports and approving its budget.
2. Ministerial/executive control: The supervising minister gives policy directives, appoints board members and the chief executive, and oversees the general running of the corporation.
3. Financial/audit control: The accounts are audited by the Auditor-General and examined by public accounts committees to ensure proper use of funds.
4. Judicial control: The courts check the corporation to ensure it acts within the powers conferred on it by law and does not exceed its authority (ultra vires).
5. Public opinion control: Complaints from the public, the press and consumer bodies compel the corporation to render efficient service.

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(a) Political parties and their leaders in the 1979 presidential election in Nigeria

1. National Party of Nigeria (NPN) - Alhaji Shehu Shagari.
2. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) - Chief Obafemi Awolowo.
3. Nigeria People's Party (NPP) - Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe.

(Others were the People's Redemption Party (PRP) led by Alhaji Aminu Kano and the Great Nigeria People's Party (GNPP) led by Alhaji Waziri Ibrahim.)

(b) Features of political parties in Nigeria since independence

1. Ethnic and regional orientation: Most parties have drawn their support and leadership largely from particular ethnic groups or regions rather than the whole nation.
2. Weak ideology: Nigerian parties are generally not built on clear ideological differences; they are dominated by personalities rather than principles.
3. Domination by wealthy individuals (godfathers): Rich and powerful individuals tend to fund and control the parties.
4. Weak internal democracy and factionalism: Parties are often torn by disputes, imposition of candidates and frequent cross-carpeting.
5. Formation around elections: Many parties become active mainly at election time and are essentially vote-getting machines.

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Weaknesses of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

1. Military imposition: The constitution was drawn up and handed down by the military regime without genuine popular participation, so it lacks a truly democratic origin ("We the people" is disputed).
2. Over-centralisation of power: Too many powers and resources are concentrated in the federal government at the expense of the states, weakening true federalism.
3. Contentious revenue allocation and resource control: The formula for sharing national revenue has been a source of persistent agitation, especially in the oil-producing areas.
4. Non-justiciability of Chapter Two (Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles): The socio-economic rights are not enforceable in court, so citizens cannot compel government to provide them.
5. Cumbersome amendment procedure: The rigid requirements for altering the constitution make necessary reforms difficult to achieve.
6. Ambiguities and conflicts: Some provisions are vague or contradictory, for example on state creation, local government autonomy and the roles of federal and state governments, leading to disputes.

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Features of federalism

Federalism is a system of government in which governmental powers are shared between a central (federal) government and component units (states or regions), each supreme within its own sphere.

1. Division of powers: Powers are constitutionally shared between the central government and the component units, usually through exclusive, concurrent and residual lists.
2. Written and rigid constitution: There is a supreme written constitution which clearly spells out the powers of each level of government and is not easily amended.
3. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution is the highest law of the land; both the federal and state governments derive their powers from it.
4. An independent judiciary/Supreme Court: A neutral court interprets the constitution and settles disputes between the levels of government.
5. Bicameral legislature: There is usually a two-chamber legislature to give representation both to the population and to the component units.
6. Duplication of governmental organs: Each level of government has its own executive, legislature and administrative machinery.

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Differences between the Crown Colony and the Protectorate