JAMB UTME - Economics - 2013

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One of the assumptions of the cardinalist approach is that total utility depends on the quantity of the commodities consumed. The cardinalist approach is a method of measuring utility, which is the satisfaction or happiness a person derives from consuming goods and services. According to this approach, the total utility a person derives from consuming a good or service depends on the quantity consumed. In other words, as a person consumes more of a good or service, their total utility will increase, but at a decreasing rate. This approach assumes that it is possible to measure utility in cardinal numbers, meaning that it is possible to assign numerical values to the utility a person derives from consuming different goods and services. This allows for the comparison and ranking of different goods and services in terms of their utility. In simple terms, the cardinalist approach assumes that the more of a good or service a person consumes, the more satisfaction or happiness they will derive from it, and that this satisfaction or happiness can be measured using numerical values.

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The elasticity of demand for bicycles is 2.0. Elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good to a change in its price. It is calculated as the percentage change in the quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in the price. In this case, the price of a bicycle changed from N120 to N80, which is a decrease of 33.3% [(120-80)/120 x 100]. The quantity bought also changed from 300 to 500 units, which is an increase of 66.7% [(500-300)/300 x 100]. Using the formula for elasticity of demand, we get: Elasticity of demand = percentage change in quantity demanded / percentage change in price Elasticity of demand = 66.7% / 33.3% Elasticity of demand = 2.0 A result of 2.0 for elasticity of demand indicates that the quantity demanded of bicycles is highly responsive to changes in its price. In other words, a 1% change in the price of bicycles will result in a 2% change in the quantity demanded of bicycles. This suggests that bicycles are highly price-sensitive goods, and consumers are likely to switch to substitute goods if the price of bicycles increases.

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The measure of national income used as a comparison of standard of living among nations is per capita income. Per capita income is calculated by dividing the total national income of a country by its population. It represents the average income of each person in the country. Per capita income is used to measure the standard of living of a country's population and to compare the economic well-being of different countries. Gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP) are also measures of national income, but they do not directly measure the standard of living. GDP measures the value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders, regardless of the nationality of the producers. GNP measures the value of all goods and services produced by a country's citizens, regardless of where they are produced. While GDP and GNP are important measures of a country's economic activity, they do not provide a complete picture of the standard of living of its citizens. For example, a country with a high GDP or GNP may still have a high poverty rate or income inequality, which would negatively affect the standard of living. Per capita income, on the other hand, takes into account the size of a country's population and provides a more accurate measure of the standard of living. By dividing the total national income by the population, per capita income provides an estimate of the average income of each person in the country. It is a widely used measure for comparing the economic well-being of different countries.

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A tax on land is a form of tax that is imposed on the value of a property or land. The incidence of a land tax determines who ultimately bears the burden of the tax. The incidence of a land tax is determined by the relative elasticity of demand and supply of the land. In general, the incidence of a land tax falls entirely on the landowners. The reason is that the supply of land is inelastic, which means that the quantity of land supplied cannot be easily increased or decreased in response to changes in the market. Therefore, if a tax is imposed on land, the landowners cannot reduce the supply of land to avoid the tax. As a result, they will have to bear the entire burden of the tax. However, in some cases, the incidence of a land tax may be partly shifted to the users or renters of the land. This may occur if the demand for land is more elastic than the supply, meaning that users or renters can easily substitute other types of land or property to avoid the tax. In such cases, the landowners may reduce the rent they charge to attract or retain tenants, thereby shifting some of the tax burden to the users or renters. In summary, the incidence of a land tax ultimately falls on the landowners, but in some cases, it may be partially shifted to the users or renters of the land, depending on the relative elasticity of demand and supply.

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Efficiency in public corporations in Nigeria can be achieved through "privatization." Public corporations are organizations that are owned and run by the government to provide goods and services to the public. However, these corporations can sometimes face issues with inefficiency, bureaucracy, and poor management. Privatization refers to the process of transferring ownership and control of public corporations to private entities, such as individuals or companies. Through privatization, private entities take over the management and operations of the corporation, which can often lead to increased efficiency and better management. In Nigeria, privatization has been used as a tool to improve the efficiency of public corporations. By privatizing these corporations, the private sector can inject new capital, improve management, and increase productivity, which can lead to better services and lower costs for consumers. Therefore, privatization is a viable option to achieve efficiency in public corporations in Nigeria.

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A distinguishing characteristic of a consumer co-operative society is that "members are the owners." A consumer co-operative society is a type of co-operative organization that is formed to meet the needs of its members, who are also its owners. In other words, the members of a consumer co-operative society are also its shareholders, and they have a say in the governance of the organization. This characteristic is what sets a consumer co-operative society apart from other types of business organizations. In a typical business, ownership and control are usually in the hands of a small group of shareholders or investors, who may not have any direct relationship with the customers or users of the business. In a consumer co-operative society, however, the members are not only the customers or users, but also the owners and decision-makers. This creates a sense of ownership and accountability among the members, who are motivated to ensure that the organization is run in a way that benefits everyone. Therefore, the distinguishing characteristic of a consumer co-operative society is that its members are the owners, which is what sets it apart from other types of business organizations.

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The equation given is P = 1/4(Qs + 10), where P represents the price and Qs represents the quantity supplied. To find the quantity supplied at N14, we need to substitute P = 14 into the equation and solve for Qs. P = 1/4(Qs + 10) (Substitute P = 14) 14 = 1/4(Qs + 10) (Multiply both sides by 4 to isolate Qs) 56 = Qs + 10 (Subtract 10 from both sides) 46 = Qs Therefore, the quantity supplied at N14 is 46. This means that at a price of 14, suppliers are willing and able to supply 46 units of the product.

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If the supply of a product is elastic, a small reduction in price will "increase the quantity supplied." The elasticity of supply measures the responsiveness of the quantity supplied of a product to changes in its price. When the supply of a product is elastic, a small change in price results in a relatively larger change in the quantity supplied. In other words, if the price of a product decreases, suppliers are able to increase the quantity of the product they are willing and able to supply. This is because the decrease in price makes it less expensive for suppliers to produce and sell the product, which in turn encourages them to supply more of it. Therefore, when the supply of a product is elastic, a small reduction in price will lead to an increase in the quantity supplied. Conversely, when the supply of a product is inelastic, a change in price will result in a relatively smaller change in the quantity supplied. It is important to note that the degree of elasticity of supply can vary depending on a number of factors, such as the availability of inputs, the ease of production, and the time horizon. In general, however, if the supply of a product is elastic, a small reduction in price will lead to an increase in the quantity supplied.

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The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) uses the discount rate to control inflation. The discount rate, also known as the bank rate or policy rate, is the interest rate at which commercial banks can borrow from the central bank. When the CBN lowers the discount rate, commercial banks can borrow at a lower cost, which in turn leads to an increase in the money supply in the economy. This increase in the money supply leads to an increase in demand for goods and services, which can lead to an increase in prices (inflation). Conversely, when the CBN raises the discount rate, borrowing becomes more expensive for commercial banks, leading to a decrease in the money supply and a decrease in demand for goods and services. This decrease in demand can lead to a decrease in prices (deflation). Therefore, the CBN uses the discount rate as a monetary policy tool to control inflation. By adjusting the discount rate, the CBN can influence the cost of borrowing and ultimately the money supply in the economy, which affects the level of demand and therefore the level of prices. Tariffs on imports and tax rates are fiscal policy tools that can also affect the level of demand and inflation in the economy. The exchange rate, on the other hand, is a monetary policy tool that can affect the competitiveness of exports and imports but may not directly impact inflation control.

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The rate of interest change on loans largely depends on the risk associated with the loan. When a bank considers giving out a loan, it assesses the level of risk associated with the loan. Factors that can affect the level of risk include the borrower's creditworthiness, the purpose of the loan, the collateral offered, and the prevailing economic conditions. If the bank determines that the level of risk associated with the loan is high, it will charge a higher interest rate to compensate for the risk. Conversely, if the level of risk is low, the bank may charge a lower interest rate. The marginal efficiency of capital is a concept in economics that refers to the expected rate of return on investment. While it can affect the level of investment in the economy, it may not directly affect the interest rate on loans. The prevailing exchange rate and tax rate are factors that can affect the overall economic conditions in the country, but they may not directly influence the interest rate on loans. Therefore, the risk associated with the loan is the primary factor that determines the rate of interest change on loans. Banks will adjust their interest rates to account for the level of risk associated with the loan, which can vary depending on the borrower and the prevailing economic conditions.

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The speculative demand for money is inversely related to the interest rate. The speculative demand for money refers to the demand for money for the purpose of investing in assets such as stocks or bonds, with the expectation of making a profit. When interest rates are high, it becomes more attractive for individuals and businesses to invest their money in assets that offer a higher rate of return. As a result, the demand for money for speculative purposes decreases. On the other hand, when interest rates are low, the returns on investment in assets such as stocks and bonds are also low, making it less attractive to hold money for speculative purposes. In this case, the demand for money for speculative purposes increases. In simple terms, the higher the interest rate, the less people and businesses want to hold money for speculative purposes, and vice versa.

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The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) has the power to control the money supply in the economy by issuing or withdrawing money from circulation. If the CBN reduces the money supply, this means there is less money available for people and businesses to spend. When there is less money available, the demand for it increases, and this leads to an increase in interest rates. Interest rates are the cost of borrowing money, and when they rise, it becomes more expensive for people and businesses to borrow money. So, if the CBN reduces the money supply, the interest rate will rise. This is because there is less money available, and the increased demand for it leads to an increase in the cost of borrowing.

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A valid explanation for real wage growth is an increase in the rate of productivity. This means that workers are producing more goods or services in a given amount of time, making the economy more efficient. As a result, employers are able to pay their workers more for their increased output. This leads to an increase in real wages, which is the amount of goods or services a worker can buy with their salary after accounting for inflation. In other words, when workers are able to produce more, the value of their work goes up, and they are able to command higher wages. This results in real wage growth, and is a key factor in improving the standard of living for workers and the overall economy.

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Life insurance companies contribute to economic development by holding a part of their assets in long-term financial instruments, such as stocks and bonds. By investing in these instruments, life insurance companies provide a source of capital for companies and governments to fund their operations and investments, which in turn stimulates economic growth. This is because these investments generate income for the life insurance companies, which can then be used to pay out claims and invest in new policies, ultimately contributing to the overall stability of the financial system. By contrast, holding too much cash or near money can limit the potential returns for the life insurance company, while investing in equipment may not be as liquid or diversified. Money-market instruments can provide short-term liquidity, but they may not generate the same long-term returns as other financial instruments.

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If a refinery achieves a reduction in cost by purchasing and transporting crude oil in large quantities, it enjoys "economies of scale". Economies of scale refer to the cost advantages that a business can achieve when it increases its scale of production or operation. In simple terms, as a business grows and produces more goods or services, its average cost of production tends to decrease. This is because fixed costs, such as rent, salaries, and machinery, can be spread over a larger volume of output, resulting in lower per-unit costs. In the given scenario, the refinery is able to purchase and transport crude oil in large quantities, which enables it to spread its fixed costs over a larger volume of output. This, in turn, leads to a decrease in the per-unit cost of producing the refined oil. As a result, the refinery is able to achieve economies of scale and enjoy cost advantages over its competitors.

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Utility is the satisfaction or happiness that a person derives from the use or consumption of goods and services. People consume goods and services because they provide them with some form of benefit or satisfaction. For example, someone might purchase a chocolate bar because they enjoy the taste and it makes them happy. The satisfaction that they receive from eating the chocolate bar is the utility that they derive from it. In economics, utility is often used as a measure of the overall satisfaction or happiness that a person derives from the consumption of goods and services. Utility is a subjective measure, meaning that it varies from person to person and cannot be measured directly. Economists use the concept of utility to explain how people make choices about what goods and services to consume. People will generally choose to consume goods and services that provide them with the highest level of utility or satisfaction, given their budget constraints and other limitations.

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Emigration refers to the act of people leaving one country or region to settle permanently in another. The effect of emigration on a country's population is a decrease in the population. This is because people are leaving the country, and there are fewer people left behind. As a result of this decrease in population, there may be a decrease in job opportunities. This is because there are fewer people to work in the country, and therefore, businesses may find it harder to fill job vacancies. Emigration may lead to an increase in the dependency ratio. This is because there are fewer working-age people in the country to support the elderly and children. Overall, emigration can have significant effects on a country's population and economy. However, it's worth noting that emigration can also have positive effects, such as remittances (money sent back home by emigrants) that can help boost the economy of the home country.

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If there is an increase in demand without a corresponding change in supply, it will lead to an increase in the equilibrium price and quantity. In a market with fixed supply, when demand increases, there will be more buyers willing to purchase the commodity at any given price, leading to a shortage or excess demand. This shortage will create a competition among buyers, causing them to be willing to pay a higher price to secure the limited supply. As the price increases, suppliers may also be motivated to increase their production, as they stand to gain more profits from the higher prices. Eventually, the price will increase to a point where the quantity demanded decreases, and quantity supplied increases, leading to a new equilibrium point with a higher price and quantity than before. Therefore, an increase in demand without a corresponding change in supply will lead to an increase in equilibrium price and quantity in the market.

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To find the median of a set of data, we need to arrange the data in order from lowest to highest or highest to lowest. In this case, the data in the set are: 10, 14, 15, 18, 22, 28, 30, 35, 38 We can see that there are 9 numbers in the set, which is an odd number. The median is the middle number when the data are arranged in order. Since there are an odd number of data points, there is exactly one middle number. To find the middle number, we count up from the smallest number and down from the largest number until we reach the middle. In this case, the middle number is 22 because it is the fifth number when the data are arranged in order: 10, 14, 15, 18, 22, 28, 30, 35, 38 Therefore, the median of the set of data 35, 10, 14, 38, 15, 18, 22, 30, and 28 is 22.

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Based on the information given, Mr. X is "frictionally unemployed." Frictional unemployment occurs when people are temporarily unemployed while they search for a new job. This type of unemployment arises due to the time and effort it takes for workers to search for job openings, apply for jobs, and go through the hiring process. In this scenario, Mr. X lost his job as a clerk and then spent ten months searching for a similar job. This time period suggests that he was actively seeking employment during this time, indicating that he was frictionally unemployed. Structural unemployment, on the other hand, occurs when there is a mismatch between the skills that workers possess and the skills that are in demand in the job market. Seasonal unemployment occurs when workers are unemployed due to seasonal changes in demand for labor, such as during the winter holiday season. Cyclical unemployment occurs due to fluctuations in the business cycle, such as during economic recessions. Therefore, the information provided suggests that Mr. X was frictionally unemployed as he was actively searching for a job that matched his skills and experience.

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An isoquant lying above to the right of another represents "a higher output level." An isoquant is a curve that represents all possible combinations of two inputs (such as labor and capital) that can be used to produce a given level of output. The shape and position of an isoquant depend on the technology used in production. When an isoquant lies above to the right of another isoquant, it means that the same level of output can be produced using less of one input and more of the other input. This indicates that the technology used in production is more efficient or productive, allowing for a higher output level. For example, let's say that there are two isoquants representing two different production techniques for producing the same level of output. If one isoquant is above and to the right of the other, it means that the same level of output can be produced using less capital and more labor, or less labor and more capital, depending on the specific position of the isoquant. Therefore, an isoquant lying above to the right of another represents a higher output level because it shows that the same level of output can be produced using fewer resources or inputs.

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An increase in the price of a commodity will typically result in a decrease in the quantity demanded. This is because when the price of a commodity increases, consumers will tend to buy less of it as they find it relatively more expensive compared to other goods. They may look for substitutes or reduce their overall consumption of the commodity. This inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the law of demand, which states that all else being equal, as the price of a commodity increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa. It is important to note that an increase in price does not necessarily mean a decrease in demand. Demand refers to the overall desire for a commodity and can be influenced by many factors such as changes in income, preferences, and availability of substitutes. An increase in price may lead to a decrease in the quantity demanded, but it does not necessarily mean that the overall demand for the commodity has decreased.

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The deregulation of the petroleum sector in Nigeria is expected to bring about efficiency in pricing and distribution of petroleum products. Deregulation means removing government regulations and control over the petroleum industry, allowing market forces to determine the pricing and distribution of petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, and kerosene. The Nigerian government has historically subsidized the price of petroleum products, resulting in a significant drain on the country's finances. Deregulation would mean an end to government subsidies and would allow market forces to determine the prices of petroleum products. Efficiency in pricing and distribution would be achieved as a result of increased competition and investment in the sector. With deregulation, private companies would be able to invest in the petroleum industry, leading to increased competition and better distribution networks. As competition increases, companies would be incentivized to offer better prices and improve the quality of their products. It is important to note that deregulation may initially lead to an increase in the price of petroleum products due to the removal of subsidies. However, in the long run, it is expected that prices would stabilize and reflect the true cost of production, resulting in a more efficient and sustainable petroleum industry in Nigeria. The deregulation of the petroleum sector in Nigeria may not necessarily bring an end to the importation of fuel, nor would it necessarily lead to an end to foreign firms' dominance or fixing appropriate production quotas. These outcomes would depend on the specific policies and regulations put in place by the Nigerian government.

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One of the goals of development plans in Nigeria is to achieve a higher standard of living for its citizens. The government of Nigeria aims to create development plans that will lead to an improvement in the standard of living of its people. This means that they want to provide better access to basic necessities such as food, housing, healthcare, education, and job opportunities, among others. The government recognizes that a high standard of living is crucial for the well-being and happiness of its citizens. By achieving this goal, they hope to reduce poverty and promote economic growth, which will, in turn, contribute to the overall development of the country. Improving the standard of living of its citizens is one of the key goals of any government that seeks to ensure the well-being of its people. It is an essential aspect of development, and Nigeria's government is committed to achieving this goal through various development plans and policies.

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The optimum level of output for a firm is the level of production that maximizes its profit. In other words, it is the output level at which the firm earns the highest possible profit. To determine the optimum level of output, a firm needs to consider the relationship between its marginal cost (MC) and marginal revenue (MR). Marginal cost is the additional cost of producing one more unit of output, while marginal revenue is the additional revenue earned from selling one more unit of output. At the optimum level of output, the firm's marginal revenue should be equal to its marginal cost (MR=MC). This is because if the marginal revenue is higher than the marginal cost, the firm can increase its profit by producing more units. Conversely, if the marginal cost is higher than the marginal revenue, the firm can increase its profit by producing fewer units. Therefore, the option that represents the optimum level of output for the firm is the point at which the marginal cost curve intersects with the marginal revenue curve. This point is denoted by "OB". Options "BC", "OS", and "BS" represent output levels at which the firm would earn lower profits than at the optimum level of output.

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An economy in which both the public and private sectors contribute to economic growth is a mixed economy. In a mixed economy, the government and private individuals or businesses both play a role in the production and distribution of goods and services. The private sector consists of individuals and businesses that are owned and operated by private individuals for profit. The public sector, on the other hand, consists of government-owned and operated entities such as schools, hospitals, and public utilities. In a mixed economy, the government plays a role in regulating the economy and providing public goods and services such as infrastructure, education, and healthcare. The private sector is responsible for producing most of the goods and services consumed in the economy and creating jobs. A mixed economy combines the advantages of both private enterprise and government intervention. Private enterprise encourages innovation, competition, and efficiency, while government intervention provides stability, social welfare, and economic security. The balance between these two sectors can vary depending on the specific goals and policies of the government. Many modern economies, including the United States, Canada, and most of Europe, are considered mixed economies.

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If the price of a commodity is fixed below equilibrium, it will lead to excess demand. This means that the quantity of the commodity demanded by consumers will exceed the quantity supplied by producers at that price level. As a result, there will be shortages of the commodity, as consumers compete with each other to buy the limited available supply. In a free market, if the price of a commodity is below equilibrium, producers would be hesitant to produce more of it as they won't be able to cover their costs. On the other hand, consumers would want to buy more of the commodity due to its lower price. This mismatch between demand and supply would lead to an increase in the price of the commodity, as the producers respond to the higher demand by producing more of it to capture the higher profits. However, when the price is fixed below equilibrium, this mechanism is not allowed to work, leading to a situation of excess demand. This may result in long queues, rationing, or even black markets. In the long run, the shortage of the commodity may also lead to a decrease in its quality as producers are forced to cut corners to reduce costs.

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The variance is a measure of how spread out a set of data is from its mean. It is calculated by squaring the standard deviation. In this case, the standard deviation is given as 53. So, to find the variance, we simply need to square 53. 53^2 = 2809 Therefore, the variance of the given data is 2809. To summarize, the variance is calculated by squaring the standard deviation, and in this case, the variance is 2809 since the standard deviation is 53.